The earliest dated printed book known is the "Diamond Sutra", printed in China in 868 CE. However, it is suspected that book printing may have occurred long before this date.
In 1041, movable clay type was first invented in China. Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith and businessman from the mining town of Mainz in southern Germany, borrowed money to invent a technology that changed the world of printing. Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with replaceable/moveable wooden or metal letters in 1436 (completed by 1440).
This method of printing can be credited not only for a revolution in the production of books, but also for fostering rapid development in the sciences, arts and religion through the transmission of texts.
Gutenberg Press
The Gutenberg press with its wooden and later metal movable type printing brought down the price of printed materials and made such materials available for the masses. It remained the standard until the 20th century. The Gutenberg printing press developed from the technology of the screw-type wine presses of the Rhine Valley. It was there in 1440 that Johannes Gutenberg created his printing press, a hand press, in which ink was rolled over the raised surfaces of moveable hand-set block letters held within a wooden form and the form was then pressed against a sheet of paper.
Gutenberg Bible
Johannes Gutenberg is also accredited with printing the world's first book using movable type, the 42-line (the number of lines per page) Gutenberg Bible.
During the centuries, many newer printing technologies were developed based on Gutenberg's printing machine e.g. offset printing.
Brief Biography -Johannes Gutenberg
Johannes Gutenberg was a German goldsmith and inventor best known for the Gutenberg press, an innovative printing machine that used movable type. Gutenberg was born between 1394 and 1400 and died in 1468.
In 1438, Gutenberg began a business arrangement with Andreas Dritzehn, who funded his experiments in printing. In 1450, Gutenberg began a second arrangement with German businessman Johannes Fust. Fust lent Gutenberg the money to start a printing business and build a large Gutenberg Press, their printing projects included the now famous Gutenberg Bible. On September 30, 1452, Johann Guttenberg's Bible was published becoming the first book to be published in volume.
Senin, 20 Oktober 2008
Jumat, 10 Oktober 2008
THE ALL BEGIN ISLAM INTO SPANYOL
Islam occupied Spain at the time of caliph Al-Walid (705-715 F), one of the inheritors of Banu Umayyah based in Damascus, where the Islamic Ummah has menguasasi North Africa.
In the Spanish Conquest, there are three heroes of Islam that can be said that the most meritorious Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, and Moses ibn Nushair.
Islam occupied Spain at the time of Caliph Al-Walid (705-715 F), one of the inheritors of Banu Umayah based in Damascus. Before the Spanish conquest, Islam was to North Africa and as one of the provinces of Banu Umayah dynasty, the settler fully on North Africa that occurred at the time of Caliph Abdul Malik (685-705 F). Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn up Nu'man Hasan al-Ghassani became governor in the area. At the time of Caliph al-Walid, Hasan ibn Nu'man have been replaced by Moses ibn Nushair. In the days that al-Walid, Moses ibn Nushair expand the occupying power with Algeria and Marokko. In addition, he also completed the conquest to the regions used the power of nation-Hun in the mountainous highlands, so that their faithful and promised that will not create chaos-chaos as they had done previously. Subjugation of the region from North Africa that defeated the first time to become one of the provinces of Khilafah Banu Umayah take over 53 years old, the start of 30 H (the government Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan) up to 83 years H (the al-Walid). Before defeated and then mastered Islam, in this area, there are bag-base bag into the power of the Roman empire, the Gothic kingdom. The Kingdom is often incite the population to create unrest and opposing the power of Islam. After this area really can be mastered, Islam began to focus attention to subdue Spain. Thus, North Africa became springboard for Muslims in the region Spanish conquest.
In the Spanish Conquest, there are three heroes of Islam can be said that the most meritorious unit-led troops to the unit there. They are Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, and Moses ibn Nushair. Tharif can be called a pioneer and investigators. He crosses the strait is located between continental Europe and Marokko it with a team of war, five hundred people are the army of a horse, they mount four boats provided by Julian. In the raid that Tharif not get the means of resistance. He was victorious and return to North Africa to bring loot property that is not a little amount. Tharif encouraged by the success and crisis that occurred in the body Visigothic kingdom in power in Spain at the time, and the encouragement of greater wealth for war booty, Moses ibn Nushair in the year 711 M to send Spanish troops to as many as 7,000 people under the leaders Thariq ibn Ziyad .
Thariq ibn Ziyad more known as the Spanish conqueror because of his team greater and more concrete results. Team consists of most of the barbarian tribes that supported by Moses ibn Nushair and some Arabs who sent Caliph al-Walid. The team was then cross the Strait under the leaders Thariq ibn Ziyad. A mountain Thariq first place and his team landed and set up his team, known by the name of Gibraltar (Jabal Thariq). In the battle at a place called Bakkah, Roderick King can be defeated. From there Thariq and his team continue to conquer important cities, such as Cordova, Granada and Toledo (Gothic capital of the kingdom at that time).
Before Thariq subdue the city of Toledo, he asks additional troops to Moses ibn Nushair in North Africa. Moses to send additional troops as much as 5,000 personnel, so that the number of troops Thariq wholly 12,000. This amount is not comparable with the teams Gothic far larger, 100,000 people.
The first victory is achieved by Thariq ibn Ziyad make the road to defeat the wider region again. Moses ibn Nushair need to feel involved in the stadium battle with the intention to help the struggle Thariq. After he successfully conquered Sidonia, Karmona, Seville, and Merida and defeat the ruler of the kingdom Gothic, Theodomir in Orihuela, he joined Thariq in Toledo.
Next, they successfully controlled the entire city important in Spain, including the north, from Navarre to Saragosa.
The next wave of expansion in the region appears on the government of Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 99 years H/717 M. This time the target is intended to control the region around the mountain Pyrenia and Southern France. Leadership team to trust Al-Samah, but the business failed and he was killed themselves in the year 102 H. Next, the team submitted to the leaders Abdurrahman ibn Abdullah al-Ghafiqi. With his team, he attacked the city Bordesu, Poiter, and from here he tried to attack the city of Tours. However, the city of Tours Poiter and he was arrested by Charles Martel, so the attack failed to France and the army rewind back to Spain.
After that, there are still attack-attack, such as Avirignon year to 734 F to 743 F Lyon years, and the islands are Majorca in the Mediterranean Sea, Corsia, Sardinia, Creta, Rhodes, Cyprus and some of Sicilia also fell to in the hands of the Islamic era Banu Umayah. The second largest wave of invasive p move that started at the beginning of century to the F-8, has been reaching all Spain and France extends far reaching Central and parts of Italy. Victory a victory achieved starkly Islam so easy.It can not be separated from the external and internal factors that benefit.
Is the external factor is a condition in the country Spain itself. During the Spanish conquest by the people of Islam, social conditions, political, and economic development this country is in sad circumstances. In politics, the area of Spanish-products-torn and divided the country into several small. Along with the Gothic authorities are no tolerant of the flow of religious beliefs by the authorities, namely the flow Monofisit, especially against the other religion, the Jews. agama The Jewish religion, which is the largest part of the population of Spain was forced to be baptized Christian. That is not willing tortured, and killed in brutal. People are divided into for-class system, so the situation is covered by the misery, and the lack of equality. In such situations, people suppressed awaiting arrival interpreter liberator, and they find people from Islam.
With regard to the Amer Ali, as quoted by Imamuddin said, when Africa (East and West) enjoy in terms of material comfort, togetherness, justice and prosperity, neighboring Spain in the peninsula is in deplorable conditions under the iron hand ruler Visighotic. On the other hand, the kingdom is in crisis, which will result in suffering people. As a result of the despicable treatment, colony-Jewish colony that became important places of resistance . Disunity in the country Spain is a lot to help the success of the intervention of the Islamic year 711 M. Disunity is very much the pattern, and there have been long before the Gothic kingdom stand.
Perpecahan politik memperburuk keadaan ekonomi masyarakat. This army of the Islamic army that the other is Roderick consisting of the downtrodden slaves who no longer have the spirit of the war In addition, the Jewish people during this conference also partnerships and provide assistance for the struggle .
As is the internal factor is a condition in which there is a sovereign body, tokon-partisan leaders and the soldiers involved in the Islamic conquest in the region, especially Spain. The leaders are leaders in a strong, unified army, united, and full of confidence. They also say, brave and courageous in the face of every issue. That is not less important is the teachings of Islam, which indicated the army of Islam, namely tolerance, brotherhood and mutual help.
Attitude of religious tolerance and brotherhood that are in private Muslims is causing residents welcomed the presence of Islamic Spain there.
In the Spanish Conquest, there are three heroes of Islam that can be said that the most meritorious Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, and Moses ibn Nushair.
Islam occupied Spain at the time of Caliph Al-Walid (705-715 F), one of the inheritors of Banu Umayah based in Damascus. Before the Spanish conquest, Islam was to North Africa and as one of the provinces of Banu Umayah dynasty, the settler fully on North Africa that occurred at the time of Caliph Abdul Malik (685-705 F). Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn up Nu'man Hasan al-Ghassani became governor in the area. At the time of Caliph al-Walid, Hasan ibn Nu'man have been replaced by Moses ibn Nushair. In the days that al-Walid, Moses ibn Nushair expand the occupying power with Algeria and Marokko. In addition, he also completed the conquest to the regions used the power of nation-Hun in the mountainous highlands, so that their faithful and promised that will not create chaos-chaos as they had done previously. Subjugation of the region from North Africa that defeated the first time to become one of the provinces of Khilafah Banu Umayah take over 53 years old, the start of 30 H (the government Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan) up to 83 years H (the al-Walid). Before defeated and then mastered Islam, in this area, there are bag-base bag into the power of the Roman empire, the Gothic kingdom. The Kingdom is often incite the population to create unrest and opposing the power of Islam. After this area really can be mastered, Islam began to focus attention to subdue Spain. Thus, North Africa became springboard for Muslims in the region Spanish conquest.
In the Spanish Conquest, there are three heroes of Islam can be said that the most meritorious unit-led troops to the unit there. They are Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, and Moses ibn Nushair. Tharif can be called a pioneer and investigators. He crosses the strait is located between continental Europe and Marokko it with a team of war, five hundred people are the army of a horse, they mount four boats provided by Julian. In the raid that Tharif not get the means of resistance. He was victorious and return to North Africa to bring loot property that is not a little amount. Tharif encouraged by the success and crisis that occurred in the body Visigothic kingdom in power in Spain at the time, and the encouragement of greater wealth for war booty, Moses ibn Nushair in the year 711 M to send Spanish troops to as many as 7,000 people under the leaders Thariq ibn Ziyad .
Thariq ibn Ziyad more known as the Spanish conqueror because of his team greater and more concrete results. Team consists of most of the barbarian tribes that supported by Moses ibn Nushair and some Arabs who sent Caliph al-Walid. The team was then cross the Strait under the leaders Thariq ibn Ziyad. A mountain Thariq first place and his team landed and set up his team, known by the name of Gibraltar (Jabal Thariq). In the battle at a place called Bakkah, Roderick King can be defeated. From there Thariq and his team continue to conquer important cities, such as Cordova, Granada and Toledo (Gothic capital of the kingdom at that time).
Before Thariq subdue the city of Toledo, he asks additional troops to Moses ibn Nushair in North Africa. Moses to send additional troops as much as 5,000 personnel, so that the number of troops Thariq wholly 12,000. This amount is not comparable with the teams Gothic far larger, 100,000 people.
The first victory is achieved by Thariq ibn Ziyad make the road to defeat the wider region again. Moses ibn Nushair need to feel involved in the stadium battle with the intention to help the struggle Thariq. After he successfully conquered Sidonia, Karmona, Seville, and Merida and defeat the ruler of the kingdom Gothic, Theodomir in Orihuela, he joined Thariq in Toledo.
Next, they successfully controlled the entire city important in Spain, including the north, from Navarre to Saragosa.
The next wave of expansion in the region appears on the government of Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 99 years H/717 M. This time the target is intended to control the region around the mountain Pyrenia and Southern France. Leadership team to trust Al-Samah, but the business failed and he was killed themselves in the year 102 H. Next, the team submitted to the leaders Abdurrahman ibn Abdullah al-Ghafiqi. With his team, he attacked the city Bordesu, Poiter, and from here he tried to attack the city of Tours. However, the city of Tours Poiter and he was arrested by Charles Martel, so the attack failed to France and the army rewind back to Spain.
After that, there are still attack-attack, such as Avirignon year to 734 F to 743 F Lyon years, and the islands are Majorca in the Mediterranean Sea, Corsia, Sardinia, Creta, Rhodes, Cyprus and some of Sicilia also fell to in the hands of the Islamic era Banu Umayah. The second largest wave of invasive p move that started at the beginning of century to the F-8, has been reaching all Spain and France extends far reaching Central and parts of Italy. Victory a victory achieved starkly Islam so easy.It can not be separated from the external and internal factors that benefit.
Is the external factor is a condition in the country Spain itself. During the Spanish conquest by the people of Islam, social conditions, political, and economic development this country is in sad circumstances. In politics, the area of Spanish-products-torn and divided the country into several small. Along with the Gothic authorities are no tolerant of the flow of religious beliefs by the authorities, namely the flow Monofisit, especially against the other religion, the Jews. agama The Jewish religion, which is the largest part of the population of Spain was forced to be baptized Christian. That is not willing tortured, and killed in brutal. People are divided into for-class system, so the situation is covered by the misery, and the lack of equality. In such situations, people suppressed awaiting arrival interpreter liberator, and they find people from Islam.
With regard to the Amer Ali, as quoted by Imamuddin said, when Africa (East and West) enjoy in terms of material comfort, togetherness, justice and prosperity, neighboring Spain in the peninsula is in deplorable conditions under the iron hand ruler Visighotic. On the other hand, the kingdom is in crisis, which will result in suffering people. As a result of the despicable treatment, colony-Jewish colony that became important places of resistance . Disunity in the country Spain is a lot to help the success of the intervention of the Islamic year 711 M. Disunity is very much the pattern, and there have been long before the Gothic kingdom stand.
Perpecahan politik memperburuk keadaan ekonomi masyarakat. This army of the Islamic army that the other is Roderick consisting of the downtrodden slaves who no longer have the spirit of the war In addition, the Jewish people during this conference also partnerships and provide assistance for the struggle .
As is the internal factor is a condition in which there is a sovereign body, tokon-partisan leaders and the soldiers involved in the Islamic conquest in the region, especially Spain. The leaders are leaders in a strong, unified army, united, and full of confidence. They also say, brave and courageous in the face of every issue. That is not less important is the teachings of Islam, which indicated the army of Islam, namely tolerance, brotherhood and mutual help.
Attitude of religious tolerance and brotherhood that are in private Muslims is causing residents welcomed the presence of Islamic Spain there.
Senin, 06 Oktober 2008
BEGIN ENGINE DIESEL ( AWAL MESIN DIESEL )
Rudolf Diesel was born in Paris in 1858. His parents were Bavarian immigrants. Rudolf Diesel was educated at Munich Polytechnic.However, he true love lay in engine design.
Rudolf Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his new invention, dubbed the diesel engine.
Rudolf Diesel was almost killed by his engine when it exploded. However, his engine was the first that proved that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first successful engine in 1897.
In 1898, Rudolf Diesel was granted patent #608,845 for an "internal combustion engine" the Diesel engine.
The diesel engines of today are refined and improved versions of Rudolf Diesel's original concept. They are often used in submarines, ships, locomotives, and large trucks and in electric generating plants.
Though best known for his invention of the pressure-ignited heat engine that bears his name, Rudolf Diesel was also a well-respected thermal engineer and a social theorist. Rudolf Diesel's inventions have three points in common: They relate to heat transference by natural physical processes or laws; they involve markedly creative mechanical design; and they were initially motivated by the inventor's concept of sociological needs. Rudolf Diesel originally conceived the diesel engine to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete with large industry.
At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Rudolf Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with the theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the ten percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Rudolf Diesel was a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft, and soon after were used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping.
Rudolf Diesel Rudolf Diesel was the inventor of the diesel fueled internal combustion engine.
History of the Diesel In 1892, Rudolf Diesel was issued a patent for a proposed engine, in which air would be compressed so much that the temperature would far exceed the ignition temperature of the fuel.
Rudolf Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his new invention, dubbed the diesel engine.
Rudolf Diesel was almost killed by his engine when it exploded. However, his engine was the first that proved that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first successful engine in 1897.
In 1898, Rudolf Diesel was granted patent #608,845 for an "internal combustion engine" the Diesel engine.
The diesel engines of today are refined and improved versions of Rudolf Diesel's original concept. They are often used in submarines, ships, locomotives, and large trucks and in electric generating plants.
Though best known for his invention of the pressure-ignited heat engine that bears his name, Rudolf Diesel was also a well-respected thermal engineer and a social theorist. Rudolf Diesel's inventions have three points in common: They relate to heat transference by natural physical processes or laws; they involve markedly creative mechanical design; and they were initially motivated by the inventor's concept of sociological needs. Rudolf Diesel originally conceived the diesel engine to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete with large industry.
At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Rudolf Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with the theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the ten percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Rudolf Diesel was a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft, and soon after were used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping.
Rudolf Diesel Rudolf Diesel was the inventor of the diesel fueled internal combustion engine.
History of the Diesel In 1892, Rudolf Diesel was issued a patent for a proposed engine, in which air would be compressed so much that the temperature would far exceed the ignition temperature of the fuel.
Kamis, 02 Oktober 2008
BEGIN SUBMARINE ( AWAL DARI KAPAL SELAM )
Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel was born in Alkmaar (Netherlands) in 1572, the son of a well-to-do farmer. He probably received only an elementary education, which would have included Latin. He had no university education. As a young man he was apprenticed to the famous engraver Hendrick Goltzius in Haarlem. Goltzius incidentally practiced alchemy and undoubtedly introduced Drebbel to the art. Drebbel had little interest in the quest for the Elixir of Life or the Philosopher's Stone, and instead learned chemical ideas and processes. Drebbel married Sophia Jansdochter, one of Goltzius' younger sisters in 1595. One of the reasons for his lack of success is said to have been his wife.
In 1595 he settled at Alkmaar, where he devoted himself to engraving and publishing maps and pictures. He soon turned to mechanical invention, for in 1598 he was a granted a patent for a pump and a clock with perpetual motion. In 1602 he was granted a patent for a chimney. He also made instruments and designed a water-supply system for the town of Alkmaar.
In 1604, King James I received Drebbel at his court in England. Drebbel obtained the attention of the English court through the amazing perpetual motion machine. It actually 'worked' through shifts in air temperature and pressure. The King stationed him at the Castle at Eltham, where he entered the special service of Henry, the Prince of Wales, as a mechanic especially associated with displays of fireworks. Payments to him of £ 20 in both 1609 and 1610 are recorded. Many times Drebbel shuttled across the English Channel back to the Netherlands. Nevertheless Drebbel never quite made it; he remained at the level, not of a Galileo who produced spectacles of a different order, but of court entertainers among whom Drebbel walked at the King's funeral.
In 1610 Drebbel visited the court of Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, at the Emperor's invitation. Rudolf gave him the title of Chief Alchemist after seeing his remarkable perpetual motion machine; Drebbel really only claimed that it could rewind constantly by atmospheric pressure changes. It had a sealed glass tub where liquid contracted and expanded to enable the clock to constantly rewind.
He lingered a decade and instructed the son of Archduke Ferdinand of Bohemia who would later become Holy Roman Emperor. At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, Ferdinand V's forces imprisoned Drebbel and took all his possessions, for he was affluent at this time. Rudolf's brother Matthias ousted Rudolf from his authority and conquered Prague. Through the intervention of Prince Henry, Drebbel was set free to return to England in 1613.
During the next several years he lived mostly in London. About 1620 he began to devote himself to the manufacture of microscopes and to the construction of a submarine (one of his most famous projects). For the next several years he was employed by the British Navy, partly in connection with the submarine, but mostly to make explosive devices with which to attack other ships, at a fairly high salary. During 1626 to 1628, he advised the military on how to relieve the French Huguenots under siege at La Rochelle. In 1627, they put him in charge of fireships at La Rochelle. Buckingham was his source of employment and his career plummeted after someone assassinated Buckingham after La Rochelle failed . His weapons were criticized when he failed.He was involved in a drainage project in East Anglia. The extent of his involvement and the extent of his technical expertise is under debate. From 1629 until his death in 1633 he was extremely poor and earned his living by keeping an alehouse.
Technological Involvement
He was not a scientist in the strict sense but an inventor or practicing technologist. He left very few writings of his own, and none of them is concerned with his invention. His most famous work was Ein kurzer Tractac von der Natur der Elemetum (Leiden, 1608), an alchemical tract on the transmutation of the elements. Engineering seems the best category for his general activity.
Among his best-known inventions are:
Submarine: Drebbel's most phenomenal work was definitely the submarine. In 1620, he made the first "rudimentary" submarine. Drebbel constructed his vessel while working for the British Navy. They never used it, but tested it many times. He had a wooden row boat; it had a wooden hull wrapped tightly in waterproofed leather. His row boat was the first to answer the question of air replenishment underwater. Air tubes with floats went to the surface to provide the craft with oxygen. Oars went through the hull at leather gaskets. Twelve oarsmen and some other passengers were on board. The trip at the Thames River took three hours.
"Perpetual mobile": The elaborate toy operated on the basis of changes in atmospheric temperature and pressure. He extended the basic idea to the operation of clocks.
Thermostats and thermoscope: He applied the principles used in the perpetual mobile to thermostatic regulators that controlled ovens, furnaces, and incubators. As the temperature rose, air expanded, forcing quicksilver to close a damper. When it cooled, the damper opened. The incubator he made hatched both duck and chicken eggs
Optics: He invented the microscope with two sets of convex lenses. He made compound microscopes as early as 1619. He also made telescopes, and he developed a machine for grinding lenses. He constructed a camera obscura with a lens in the aperture, and he had some sort of magic lantern that projected images.
Dyeing: Drebbel made a new tin mordant process for dyeing the colour scarlet with cochineal. Treated mild red dye, cochineal, mixed with tin or pewter dissolved in nitric acid made this new colour. This process happened by accident when tin mixed with aqua regia fell into cochineal Drebbel had prepared for a thermometer. He then grasped how significant this was and told his son-in-law, Abraham Kuffler. Abraham had a dyehouse and made "colour Kufflerianus" as the new scarlet was called.
Chemical Technology: Drebbel did two more chemical processes. He oxidized sulphur for sulphuric acid, through heating sulphur and potassium nitrate (saltpetre). He made it more efficiently than any other way at that time. It became the basis for John Roebuck's work for production in the lead chamber. He also found a way to make oxygen from heating saltpetre, which is now one of the standard way to produce it.
The Drebbel Lunar Crater
This picture shows the lunar crater that is named after Cornelis Drebbel. In this figure 1 pixel corresponds to 1 km. (The size of the picture is 256 x 256 pixels.) The diameter of the crater is about 30 kilometres.The coordinates at which the crater can be found are 40.9S latitude, 49.0W longitude.
In 1595 he settled at Alkmaar, where he devoted himself to engraving and publishing maps and pictures. He soon turned to mechanical invention, for in 1598 he was a granted a patent for a pump and a clock with perpetual motion. In 1602 he was granted a patent for a chimney. He also made instruments and designed a water-supply system for the town of Alkmaar.
In 1604, King James I received Drebbel at his court in England. Drebbel obtained the attention of the English court through the amazing perpetual motion machine. It actually 'worked' through shifts in air temperature and pressure. The King stationed him at the Castle at Eltham, where he entered the special service of Henry, the Prince of Wales, as a mechanic especially associated with displays of fireworks. Payments to him of £ 20 in both 1609 and 1610 are recorded. Many times Drebbel shuttled across the English Channel back to the Netherlands. Nevertheless Drebbel never quite made it; he remained at the level, not of a Galileo who produced spectacles of a different order, but of court entertainers among whom Drebbel walked at the King's funeral.
In 1610 Drebbel visited the court of Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, at the Emperor's invitation. Rudolf gave him the title of Chief Alchemist after seeing his remarkable perpetual motion machine; Drebbel really only claimed that it could rewind constantly by atmospheric pressure changes. It had a sealed glass tub where liquid contracted and expanded to enable the clock to constantly rewind.
He lingered a decade and instructed the son of Archduke Ferdinand of Bohemia who would later become Holy Roman Emperor. At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, Ferdinand V's forces imprisoned Drebbel and took all his possessions, for he was affluent at this time. Rudolf's brother Matthias ousted Rudolf from his authority and conquered Prague. Through the intervention of Prince Henry, Drebbel was set free to return to England in 1613.
During the next several years he lived mostly in London. About 1620 he began to devote himself to the manufacture of microscopes and to the construction of a submarine (one of his most famous projects). For the next several years he was employed by the British Navy, partly in connection with the submarine, but mostly to make explosive devices with which to attack other ships, at a fairly high salary. During 1626 to 1628, he advised the military on how to relieve the French Huguenots under siege at La Rochelle. In 1627, they put him in charge of fireships at La Rochelle. Buckingham was his source of employment and his career plummeted after someone assassinated Buckingham after La Rochelle failed . His weapons were criticized when he failed.He was involved in a drainage project in East Anglia. The extent of his involvement and the extent of his technical expertise is under debate. From 1629 until his death in 1633 he was extremely poor and earned his living by keeping an alehouse.
Technological Involvement
He was not a scientist in the strict sense but an inventor or practicing technologist. He left very few writings of his own, and none of them is concerned with his invention. His most famous work was Ein kurzer Tractac von der Natur der Elemetum (Leiden, 1608), an alchemical tract on the transmutation of the elements. Engineering seems the best category for his general activity.
Among his best-known inventions are:
Submarine: Drebbel's most phenomenal work was definitely the submarine. In 1620, he made the first "rudimentary" submarine. Drebbel constructed his vessel while working for the British Navy. They never used it, but tested it many times. He had a wooden row boat; it had a wooden hull wrapped tightly in waterproofed leather. His row boat was the first to answer the question of air replenishment underwater. Air tubes with floats went to the surface to provide the craft with oxygen. Oars went through the hull at leather gaskets. Twelve oarsmen and some other passengers were on board. The trip at the Thames River took three hours.
"Perpetual mobile": The elaborate toy operated on the basis of changes in atmospheric temperature and pressure. He extended the basic idea to the operation of clocks.
Thermostats and thermoscope: He applied the principles used in the perpetual mobile to thermostatic regulators that controlled ovens, furnaces, and incubators. As the temperature rose, air expanded, forcing quicksilver to close a damper. When it cooled, the damper opened. The incubator he made hatched both duck and chicken eggs
Optics: He invented the microscope with two sets of convex lenses. He made compound microscopes as early as 1619. He also made telescopes, and he developed a machine for grinding lenses. He constructed a camera obscura with a lens in the aperture, and he had some sort of magic lantern that projected images.
Dyeing: Drebbel made a new tin mordant process for dyeing the colour scarlet with cochineal. Treated mild red dye, cochineal, mixed with tin or pewter dissolved in nitric acid made this new colour. This process happened by accident when tin mixed with aqua regia fell into cochineal Drebbel had prepared for a thermometer. He then grasped how significant this was and told his son-in-law, Abraham Kuffler. Abraham had a dyehouse and made "colour Kufflerianus" as the new scarlet was called.
Chemical Technology: Drebbel did two more chemical processes. He oxidized sulphur for sulphuric acid, through heating sulphur and potassium nitrate (saltpetre). He made it more efficiently than any other way at that time. It became the basis for John Roebuck's work for production in the lead chamber. He also found a way to make oxygen from heating saltpetre, which is now one of the standard way to produce it.
The Drebbel Lunar Crater
This picture shows the lunar crater that is named after Cornelis Drebbel. In this figure 1 pixel corresponds to 1 km. (The size of the picture is 256 x 256 pixels.) The diameter of the crater is about 30 kilometres.The coordinates at which the crater can be found are 40.9S latitude, 49.0W longitude.
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