The earliest dated printed book known is the "Diamond Sutra", printed in China in 868 CE. However, it is suspected that book printing may have occurred long before this date.
In 1041, movable clay type was first invented in China. Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith and businessman from the mining town of Mainz in southern Germany, borrowed money to invent a technology that changed the world of printing. Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with replaceable/moveable wooden or metal letters in 1436 (completed by 1440).
This method of printing can be credited not only for a revolution in the production of books, but also for fostering rapid development in the sciences, arts and religion through the transmission of texts.
Gutenberg Press
The Gutenberg press with its wooden and later metal movable type printing brought down the price of printed materials and made such materials available for the masses. It remained the standard until the 20th century. The Gutenberg printing press developed from the technology of the screw-type wine presses of the Rhine Valley. It was there in 1440 that Johannes Gutenberg created his printing press, a hand press, in which ink was rolled over the raised surfaces of moveable hand-set block letters held within a wooden form and the form was then pressed against a sheet of paper.
Gutenberg Bible
Johannes Gutenberg is also accredited with printing the world's first book using movable type, the 42-line (the number of lines per page) Gutenberg Bible.
During the centuries, many newer printing technologies were developed based on Gutenberg's printing machine e.g. offset printing.
Brief Biography -Johannes Gutenberg
Johannes Gutenberg was a German goldsmith and inventor best known for the Gutenberg press, an innovative printing machine that used movable type. Gutenberg was born between 1394 and 1400 and died in 1468.
In 1438, Gutenberg began a business arrangement with Andreas Dritzehn, who funded his experiments in printing. In 1450, Gutenberg began a second arrangement with German businessman Johannes Fust. Fust lent Gutenberg the money to start a printing business and build a large Gutenberg Press, their printing projects included the now famous Gutenberg Bible. On September 30, 1452, Johann Guttenberg's Bible was published becoming the first book to be published in volume.
Senin, 20 Oktober 2008
Jumat, 10 Oktober 2008
THE ALL BEGIN ISLAM INTO SPANYOL
Islam occupied Spain at the time of caliph Al-Walid (705-715 F), one of the inheritors of Banu Umayyah based in Damascus, where the Islamic Ummah has menguasasi North Africa.
In the Spanish Conquest, there are three heroes of Islam that can be said that the most meritorious Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, and Moses ibn Nushair.
Islam occupied Spain at the time of Caliph Al-Walid (705-715 F), one of the inheritors of Banu Umayah based in Damascus. Before the Spanish conquest, Islam was to North Africa and as one of the provinces of Banu Umayah dynasty, the settler fully on North Africa that occurred at the time of Caliph Abdul Malik (685-705 F). Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn up Nu'man Hasan al-Ghassani became governor in the area. At the time of Caliph al-Walid, Hasan ibn Nu'man have been replaced by Moses ibn Nushair. In the days that al-Walid, Moses ibn Nushair expand the occupying power with Algeria and Marokko. In addition, he also completed the conquest to the regions used the power of nation-Hun in the mountainous highlands, so that their faithful and promised that will not create chaos-chaos as they had done previously. Subjugation of the region from North Africa that defeated the first time to become one of the provinces of Khilafah Banu Umayah take over 53 years old, the start of 30 H (the government Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan) up to 83 years H (the al-Walid). Before defeated and then mastered Islam, in this area, there are bag-base bag into the power of the Roman empire, the Gothic kingdom. The Kingdom is often incite the population to create unrest and opposing the power of Islam. After this area really can be mastered, Islam began to focus attention to subdue Spain. Thus, North Africa became springboard for Muslims in the region Spanish conquest.
In the Spanish Conquest, there are three heroes of Islam can be said that the most meritorious unit-led troops to the unit there. They are Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, and Moses ibn Nushair. Tharif can be called a pioneer and investigators. He crosses the strait is located between continental Europe and Marokko it with a team of war, five hundred people are the army of a horse, they mount four boats provided by Julian. In the raid that Tharif not get the means of resistance. He was victorious and return to North Africa to bring loot property that is not a little amount. Tharif encouraged by the success and crisis that occurred in the body Visigothic kingdom in power in Spain at the time, and the encouragement of greater wealth for war booty, Moses ibn Nushair in the year 711 M to send Spanish troops to as many as 7,000 people under the leaders Thariq ibn Ziyad .
Thariq ibn Ziyad more known as the Spanish conqueror because of his team greater and more concrete results. Team consists of most of the barbarian tribes that supported by Moses ibn Nushair and some Arabs who sent Caliph al-Walid. The team was then cross the Strait under the leaders Thariq ibn Ziyad. A mountain Thariq first place and his team landed and set up his team, known by the name of Gibraltar (Jabal Thariq). In the battle at a place called Bakkah, Roderick King can be defeated. From there Thariq and his team continue to conquer important cities, such as Cordova, Granada and Toledo (Gothic capital of the kingdom at that time).
Before Thariq subdue the city of Toledo, he asks additional troops to Moses ibn Nushair in North Africa. Moses to send additional troops as much as 5,000 personnel, so that the number of troops Thariq wholly 12,000. This amount is not comparable with the teams Gothic far larger, 100,000 people.
The first victory is achieved by Thariq ibn Ziyad make the road to defeat the wider region again. Moses ibn Nushair need to feel involved in the stadium battle with the intention to help the struggle Thariq. After he successfully conquered Sidonia, Karmona, Seville, and Merida and defeat the ruler of the kingdom Gothic, Theodomir in Orihuela, he joined Thariq in Toledo.
Next, they successfully controlled the entire city important in Spain, including the north, from Navarre to Saragosa.
The next wave of expansion in the region appears on the government of Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 99 years H/717 M. This time the target is intended to control the region around the mountain Pyrenia and Southern France. Leadership team to trust Al-Samah, but the business failed and he was killed themselves in the year 102 H. Next, the team submitted to the leaders Abdurrahman ibn Abdullah al-Ghafiqi. With his team, he attacked the city Bordesu, Poiter, and from here he tried to attack the city of Tours. However, the city of Tours Poiter and he was arrested by Charles Martel, so the attack failed to France and the army rewind back to Spain.
After that, there are still attack-attack, such as Avirignon year to 734 F to 743 F Lyon years, and the islands are Majorca in the Mediterranean Sea, Corsia, Sardinia, Creta, Rhodes, Cyprus and some of Sicilia also fell to in the hands of the Islamic era Banu Umayah. The second largest wave of invasive p move that started at the beginning of century to the F-8, has been reaching all Spain and France extends far reaching Central and parts of Italy. Victory a victory achieved starkly Islam so easy.It can not be separated from the external and internal factors that benefit.
Is the external factor is a condition in the country Spain itself. During the Spanish conquest by the people of Islam, social conditions, political, and economic development this country is in sad circumstances. In politics, the area of Spanish-products-torn and divided the country into several small. Along with the Gothic authorities are no tolerant of the flow of religious beliefs by the authorities, namely the flow Monofisit, especially against the other religion, the Jews. agama The Jewish religion, which is the largest part of the population of Spain was forced to be baptized Christian. That is not willing tortured, and killed in brutal. People are divided into for-class system, so the situation is covered by the misery, and the lack of equality. In such situations, people suppressed awaiting arrival interpreter liberator, and they find people from Islam.
With regard to the Amer Ali, as quoted by Imamuddin said, when Africa (East and West) enjoy in terms of material comfort, togetherness, justice and prosperity, neighboring Spain in the peninsula is in deplorable conditions under the iron hand ruler Visighotic. On the other hand, the kingdom is in crisis, which will result in suffering people. As a result of the despicable treatment, colony-Jewish colony that became important places of resistance . Disunity in the country Spain is a lot to help the success of the intervention of the Islamic year 711 M. Disunity is very much the pattern, and there have been long before the Gothic kingdom stand.
Perpecahan politik memperburuk keadaan ekonomi masyarakat. This army of the Islamic army that the other is Roderick consisting of the downtrodden slaves who no longer have the spirit of the war In addition, the Jewish people during this conference also partnerships and provide assistance for the struggle .
As is the internal factor is a condition in which there is a sovereign body, tokon-partisan leaders and the soldiers involved in the Islamic conquest in the region, especially Spain. The leaders are leaders in a strong, unified army, united, and full of confidence. They also say, brave and courageous in the face of every issue. That is not less important is the teachings of Islam, which indicated the army of Islam, namely tolerance, brotherhood and mutual help.
Attitude of religious tolerance and brotherhood that are in private Muslims is causing residents welcomed the presence of Islamic Spain there.
In the Spanish Conquest, there are three heroes of Islam that can be said that the most meritorious Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, and Moses ibn Nushair.
Islam occupied Spain at the time of Caliph Al-Walid (705-715 F), one of the inheritors of Banu Umayah based in Damascus. Before the Spanish conquest, Islam was to North Africa and as one of the provinces of Banu Umayah dynasty, the settler fully on North Africa that occurred at the time of Caliph Abdul Malik (685-705 F). Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn up Nu'man Hasan al-Ghassani became governor in the area. At the time of Caliph al-Walid, Hasan ibn Nu'man have been replaced by Moses ibn Nushair. In the days that al-Walid, Moses ibn Nushair expand the occupying power with Algeria and Marokko. In addition, he also completed the conquest to the regions used the power of nation-Hun in the mountainous highlands, so that their faithful and promised that will not create chaos-chaos as they had done previously. Subjugation of the region from North Africa that defeated the first time to become one of the provinces of Khilafah Banu Umayah take over 53 years old, the start of 30 H (the government Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan) up to 83 years H (the al-Walid). Before defeated and then mastered Islam, in this area, there are bag-base bag into the power of the Roman empire, the Gothic kingdom. The Kingdom is often incite the population to create unrest and opposing the power of Islam. After this area really can be mastered, Islam began to focus attention to subdue Spain. Thus, North Africa became springboard for Muslims in the region Spanish conquest.
In the Spanish Conquest, there are three heroes of Islam can be said that the most meritorious unit-led troops to the unit there. They are Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, and Moses ibn Nushair. Tharif can be called a pioneer and investigators. He crosses the strait is located between continental Europe and Marokko it with a team of war, five hundred people are the army of a horse, they mount four boats provided by Julian. In the raid that Tharif not get the means of resistance. He was victorious and return to North Africa to bring loot property that is not a little amount. Tharif encouraged by the success and crisis that occurred in the body Visigothic kingdom in power in Spain at the time, and the encouragement of greater wealth for war booty, Moses ibn Nushair in the year 711 M to send Spanish troops to as many as 7,000 people under the leaders Thariq ibn Ziyad .
Thariq ibn Ziyad more known as the Spanish conqueror because of his team greater and more concrete results. Team consists of most of the barbarian tribes that supported by Moses ibn Nushair and some Arabs who sent Caliph al-Walid. The team was then cross the Strait under the leaders Thariq ibn Ziyad. A mountain Thariq first place and his team landed and set up his team, known by the name of Gibraltar (Jabal Thariq). In the battle at a place called Bakkah, Roderick King can be defeated. From there Thariq and his team continue to conquer important cities, such as Cordova, Granada and Toledo (Gothic capital of the kingdom at that time).
Before Thariq subdue the city of Toledo, he asks additional troops to Moses ibn Nushair in North Africa. Moses to send additional troops as much as 5,000 personnel, so that the number of troops Thariq wholly 12,000. This amount is not comparable with the teams Gothic far larger, 100,000 people.
The first victory is achieved by Thariq ibn Ziyad make the road to defeat the wider region again. Moses ibn Nushair need to feel involved in the stadium battle with the intention to help the struggle Thariq. After he successfully conquered Sidonia, Karmona, Seville, and Merida and defeat the ruler of the kingdom Gothic, Theodomir in Orihuela, he joined Thariq in Toledo.
Next, they successfully controlled the entire city important in Spain, including the north, from Navarre to Saragosa.
The next wave of expansion in the region appears on the government of Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 99 years H/717 M. This time the target is intended to control the region around the mountain Pyrenia and Southern France. Leadership team to trust Al-Samah, but the business failed and he was killed themselves in the year 102 H. Next, the team submitted to the leaders Abdurrahman ibn Abdullah al-Ghafiqi. With his team, he attacked the city Bordesu, Poiter, and from here he tried to attack the city of Tours. However, the city of Tours Poiter and he was arrested by Charles Martel, so the attack failed to France and the army rewind back to Spain.
After that, there are still attack-attack, such as Avirignon year to 734 F to 743 F Lyon years, and the islands are Majorca in the Mediterranean Sea, Corsia, Sardinia, Creta, Rhodes, Cyprus and some of Sicilia also fell to in the hands of the Islamic era Banu Umayah. The second largest wave of invasive p move that started at the beginning of century to the F-8, has been reaching all Spain and France extends far reaching Central and parts of Italy. Victory a victory achieved starkly Islam so easy.It can not be separated from the external and internal factors that benefit.
Is the external factor is a condition in the country Spain itself. During the Spanish conquest by the people of Islam, social conditions, political, and economic development this country is in sad circumstances. In politics, the area of Spanish-products-torn and divided the country into several small. Along with the Gothic authorities are no tolerant of the flow of religious beliefs by the authorities, namely the flow Monofisit, especially against the other religion, the Jews. agama The Jewish religion, which is the largest part of the population of Spain was forced to be baptized Christian. That is not willing tortured, and killed in brutal. People are divided into for-class system, so the situation is covered by the misery, and the lack of equality. In such situations, people suppressed awaiting arrival interpreter liberator, and they find people from Islam.
With regard to the Amer Ali, as quoted by Imamuddin said, when Africa (East and West) enjoy in terms of material comfort, togetherness, justice and prosperity, neighboring Spain in the peninsula is in deplorable conditions under the iron hand ruler Visighotic. On the other hand, the kingdom is in crisis, which will result in suffering people. As a result of the despicable treatment, colony-Jewish colony that became important places of resistance . Disunity in the country Spain is a lot to help the success of the intervention of the Islamic year 711 M. Disunity is very much the pattern, and there have been long before the Gothic kingdom stand.
Perpecahan politik memperburuk keadaan ekonomi masyarakat. This army of the Islamic army that the other is Roderick consisting of the downtrodden slaves who no longer have the spirit of the war In addition, the Jewish people during this conference also partnerships and provide assistance for the struggle .
As is the internal factor is a condition in which there is a sovereign body, tokon-partisan leaders and the soldiers involved in the Islamic conquest in the region, especially Spain. The leaders are leaders in a strong, unified army, united, and full of confidence. They also say, brave and courageous in the face of every issue. That is not less important is the teachings of Islam, which indicated the army of Islam, namely tolerance, brotherhood and mutual help.
Attitude of religious tolerance and brotherhood that are in private Muslims is causing residents welcomed the presence of Islamic Spain there.
Senin, 06 Oktober 2008
BEGIN ENGINE DIESEL ( AWAL MESIN DIESEL )
Rudolf Diesel was born in Paris in 1858. His parents were Bavarian immigrants. Rudolf Diesel was educated at Munich Polytechnic.However, he true love lay in engine design.
Rudolf Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his new invention, dubbed the diesel engine.
Rudolf Diesel was almost killed by his engine when it exploded. However, his engine was the first that proved that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first successful engine in 1897.
In 1898, Rudolf Diesel was granted patent #608,845 for an "internal combustion engine" the Diesel engine.
The diesel engines of today are refined and improved versions of Rudolf Diesel's original concept. They are often used in submarines, ships, locomotives, and large trucks and in electric generating plants.
Though best known for his invention of the pressure-ignited heat engine that bears his name, Rudolf Diesel was also a well-respected thermal engineer and a social theorist. Rudolf Diesel's inventions have three points in common: They relate to heat transference by natural physical processes or laws; they involve markedly creative mechanical design; and they were initially motivated by the inventor's concept of sociological needs. Rudolf Diesel originally conceived the diesel engine to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete with large industry.
At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Rudolf Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with the theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the ten percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Rudolf Diesel was a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft, and soon after were used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping.
Rudolf Diesel Rudolf Diesel was the inventor of the diesel fueled internal combustion engine.
History of the Diesel In 1892, Rudolf Diesel was issued a patent for a proposed engine, in which air would be compressed so much that the temperature would far exceed the ignition temperature of the fuel.
Rudolf Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his new invention, dubbed the diesel engine.
Rudolf Diesel was almost killed by his engine when it exploded. However, his engine was the first that proved that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first successful engine in 1897.
In 1898, Rudolf Diesel was granted patent #608,845 for an "internal combustion engine" the Diesel engine.
The diesel engines of today are refined and improved versions of Rudolf Diesel's original concept. They are often used in submarines, ships, locomotives, and large trucks and in electric generating plants.
Though best known for his invention of the pressure-ignited heat engine that bears his name, Rudolf Diesel was also a well-respected thermal engineer and a social theorist. Rudolf Diesel's inventions have three points in common: They relate to heat transference by natural physical processes or laws; they involve markedly creative mechanical design; and they were initially motivated by the inventor's concept of sociological needs. Rudolf Diesel originally conceived the diesel engine to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete with large industry.
At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Rudolf Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with the theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the ten percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Rudolf Diesel was a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft, and soon after were used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping.
Rudolf Diesel Rudolf Diesel was the inventor of the diesel fueled internal combustion engine.
History of the Diesel In 1892, Rudolf Diesel was issued a patent for a proposed engine, in which air would be compressed so much that the temperature would far exceed the ignition temperature of the fuel.
Kamis, 02 Oktober 2008
BEGIN SUBMARINE ( AWAL DARI KAPAL SELAM )
Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel was born in Alkmaar (Netherlands) in 1572, the son of a well-to-do farmer. He probably received only an elementary education, which would have included Latin. He had no university education. As a young man he was apprenticed to the famous engraver Hendrick Goltzius in Haarlem. Goltzius incidentally practiced alchemy and undoubtedly introduced Drebbel to the art. Drebbel had little interest in the quest for the Elixir of Life or the Philosopher's Stone, and instead learned chemical ideas and processes. Drebbel married Sophia Jansdochter, one of Goltzius' younger sisters in 1595. One of the reasons for his lack of success is said to have been his wife.
In 1595 he settled at Alkmaar, where he devoted himself to engraving and publishing maps and pictures. He soon turned to mechanical invention, for in 1598 he was a granted a patent for a pump and a clock with perpetual motion. In 1602 he was granted a patent for a chimney. He also made instruments and designed a water-supply system for the town of Alkmaar.
In 1604, King James I received Drebbel at his court in England. Drebbel obtained the attention of the English court through the amazing perpetual motion machine. It actually 'worked' through shifts in air temperature and pressure. The King stationed him at the Castle at Eltham, where he entered the special service of Henry, the Prince of Wales, as a mechanic especially associated with displays of fireworks. Payments to him of £ 20 in both 1609 and 1610 are recorded. Many times Drebbel shuttled across the English Channel back to the Netherlands. Nevertheless Drebbel never quite made it; he remained at the level, not of a Galileo who produced spectacles of a different order, but of court entertainers among whom Drebbel walked at the King's funeral.
In 1610 Drebbel visited the court of Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, at the Emperor's invitation. Rudolf gave him the title of Chief Alchemist after seeing his remarkable perpetual motion machine; Drebbel really only claimed that it could rewind constantly by atmospheric pressure changes. It had a sealed glass tub where liquid contracted and expanded to enable the clock to constantly rewind.
He lingered a decade and instructed the son of Archduke Ferdinand of Bohemia who would later become Holy Roman Emperor. At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, Ferdinand V's forces imprisoned Drebbel and took all his possessions, for he was affluent at this time. Rudolf's brother Matthias ousted Rudolf from his authority and conquered Prague. Through the intervention of Prince Henry, Drebbel was set free to return to England in 1613.
During the next several years he lived mostly in London. About 1620 he began to devote himself to the manufacture of microscopes and to the construction of a submarine (one of his most famous projects). For the next several years he was employed by the British Navy, partly in connection with the submarine, but mostly to make explosive devices with which to attack other ships, at a fairly high salary. During 1626 to 1628, he advised the military on how to relieve the French Huguenots under siege at La Rochelle. In 1627, they put him in charge of fireships at La Rochelle. Buckingham was his source of employment and his career plummeted after someone assassinated Buckingham after La Rochelle failed . His weapons were criticized when he failed.He was involved in a drainage project in East Anglia. The extent of his involvement and the extent of his technical expertise is under debate. From 1629 until his death in 1633 he was extremely poor and earned his living by keeping an alehouse.
Technological Involvement
He was not a scientist in the strict sense but an inventor or practicing technologist. He left very few writings of his own, and none of them is concerned with his invention. His most famous work was Ein kurzer Tractac von der Natur der Elemetum (Leiden, 1608), an alchemical tract on the transmutation of the elements. Engineering seems the best category for his general activity.
Among his best-known inventions are:
Submarine: Drebbel's most phenomenal work was definitely the submarine. In 1620, he made the first "rudimentary" submarine. Drebbel constructed his vessel while working for the British Navy. They never used it, but tested it many times. He had a wooden row boat; it had a wooden hull wrapped tightly in waterproofed leather. His row boat was the first to answer the question of air replenishment underwater. Air tubes with floats went to the surface to provide the craft with oxygen. Oars went through the hull at leather gaskets. Twelve oarsmen and some other passengers were on board. The trip at the Thames River took three hours.
"Perpetual mobile": The elaborate toy operated on the basis of changes in atmospheric temperature and pressure. He extended the basic idea to the operation of clocks.
Thermostats and thermoscope: He applied the principles used in the perpetual mobile to thermostatic regulators that controlled ovens, furnaces, and incubators. As the temperature rose, air expanded, forcing quicksilver to close a damper. When it cooled, the damper opened. The incubator he made hatched both duck and chicken eggs
Optics: He invented the microscope with two sets of convex lenses. He made compound microscopes as early as 1619. He also made telescopes, and he developed a machine for grinding lenses. He constructed a camera obscura with a lens in the aperture, and he had some sort of magic lantern that projected images.
Dyeing: Drebbel made a new tin mordant process for dyeing the colour scarlet with cochineal. Treated mild red dye, cochineal, mixed with tin or pewter dissolved in nitric acid made this new colour. This process happened by accident when tin mixed with aqua regia fell into cochineal Drebbel had prepared for a thermometer. He then grasped how significant this was and told his son-in-law, Abraham Kuffler. Abraham had a dyehouse and made "colour Kufflerianus" as the new scarlet was called.
Chemical Technology: Drebbel did two more chemical processes. He oxidized sulphur for sulphuric acid, through heating sulphur and potassium nitrate (saltpetre). He made it more efficiently than any other way at that time. It became the basis for John Roebuck's work for production in the lead chamber. He also found a way to make oxygen from heating saltpetre, which is now one of the standard way to produce it.
The Drebbel Lunar Crater
This picture shows the lunar crater that is named after Cornelis Drebbel. In this figure 1 pixel corresponds to 1 km. (The size of the picture is 256 x 256 pixels.) The diameter of the crater is about 30 kilometres.The coordinates at which the crater can be found are 40.9S latitude, 49.0W longitude.
In 1595 he settled at Alkmaar, where he devoted himself to engraving and publishing maps and pictures. He soon turned to mechanical invention, for in 1598 he was a granted a patent for a pump and a clock with perpetual motion. In 1602 he was granted a patent for a chimney. He also made instruments and designed a water-supply system for the town of Alkmaar.
In 1604, King James I received Drebbel at his court in England. Drebbel obtained the attention of the English court through the amazing perpetual motion machine. It actually 'worked' through shifts in air temperature and pressure. The King stationed him at the Castle at Eltham, where he entered the special service of Henry, the Prince of Wales, as a mechanic especially associated with displays of fireworks. Payments to him of £ 20 in both 1609 and 1610 are recorded. Many times Drebbel shuttled across the English Channel back to the Netherlands. Nevertheless Drebbel never quite made it; he remained at the level, not of a Galileo who produced spectacles of a different order, but of court entertainers among whom Drebbel walked at the King's funeral.
In 1610 Drebbel visited the court of Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, at the Emperor's invitation. Rudolf gave him the title of Chief Alchemist after seeing his remarkable perpetual motion machine; Drebbel really only claimed that it could rewind constantly by atmospheric pressure changes. It had a sealed glass tub where liquid contracted and expanded to enable the clock to constantly rewind.
He lingered a decade and instructed the son of Archduke Ferdinand of Bohemia who would later become Holy Roman Emperor. At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, Ferdinand V's forces imprisoned Drebbel and took all his possessions, for he was affluent at this time. Rudolf's brother Matthias ousted Rudolf from his authority and conquered Prague. Through the intervention of Prince Henry, Drebbel was set free to return to England in 1613.
During the next several years he lived mostly in London. About 1620 he began to devote himself to the manufacture of microscopes and to the construction of a submarine (one of his most famous projects). For the next several years he was employed by the British Navy, partly in connection with the submarine, but mostly to make explosive devices with which to attack other ships, at a fairly high salary. During 1626 to 1628, he advised the military on how to relieve the French Huguenots under siege at La Rochelle. In 1627, they put him in charge of fireships at La Rochelle. Buckingham was his source of employment and his career plummeted after someone assassinated Buckingham after La Rochelle failed . His weapons were criticized when he failed.He was involved in a drainage project in East Anglia. The extent of his involvement and the extent of his technical expertise is under debate. From 1629 until his death in 1633 he was extremely poor and earned his living by keeping an alehouse.
Technological Involvement
He was not a scientist in the strict sense but an inventor or practicing technologist. He left very few writings of his own, and none of them is concerned with his invention. His most famous work was Ein kurzer Tractac von der Natur der Elemetum (Leiden, 1608), an alchemical tract on the transmutation of the elements. Engineering seems the best category for his general activity.
Among his best-known inventions are:
Submarine: Drebbel's most phenomenal work was definitely the submarine. In 1620, he made the first "rudimentary" submarine. Drebbel constructed his vessel while working for the British Navy. They never used it, but tested it many times. He had a wooden row boat; it had a wooden hull wrapped tightly in waterproofed leather. His row boat was the first to answer the question of air replenishment underwater. Air tubes with floats went to the surface to provide the craft with oxygen. Oars went through the hull at leather gaskets. Twelve oarsmen and some other passengers were on board. The trip at the Thames River took three hours.
"Perpetual mobile": The elaborate toy operated on the basis of changes in atmospheric temperature and pressure. He extended the basic idea to the operation of clocks.
Thermostats and thermoscope: He applied the principles used in the perpetual mobile to thermostatic regulators that controlled ovens, furnaces, and incubators. As the temperature rose, air expanded, forcing quicksilver to close a damper. When it cooled, the damper opened. The incubator he made hatched both duck and chicken eggs
Optics: He invented the microscope with two sets of convex lenses. He made compound microscopes as early as 1619. He also made telescopes, and he developed a machine for grinding lenses. He constructed a camera obscura with a lens in the aperture, and he had some sort of magic lantern that projected images.
Dyeing: Drebbel made a new tin mordant process for dyeing the colour scarlet with cochineal. Treated mild red dye, cochineal, mixed with tin or pewter dissolved in nitric acid made this new colour. This process happened by accident when tin mixed with aqua regia fell into cochineal Drebbel had prepared for a thermometer. He then grasped how significant this was and told his son-in-law, Abraham Kuffler. Abraham had a dyehouse and made "colour Kufflerianus" as the new scarlet was called.
Chemical Technology: Drebbel did two more chemical processes. He oxidized sulphur for sulphuric acid, through heating sulphur and potassium nitrate (saltpetre). He made it more efficiently than any other way at that time. It became the basis for John Roebuck's work for production in the lead chamber. He also found a way to make oxygen from heating saltpetre, which is now one of the standard way to produce it.
The Drebbel Lunar Crater
This picture shows the lunar crater that is named after Cornelis Drebbel. In this figure 1 pixel corresponds to 1 km. (The size of the picture is 256 x 256 pixels.) The diameter of the crater is about 30 kilometres.The coordinates at which the crater can be found are 40.9S latitude, 49.0W longitude.
Minggu, 28 September 2008
BEGIN TELEPON (AWAL TELEPON)
Awal dari telepon
In 1847, Alexander Graham Bell was born into a family with a passion for communication. His grandfather, also named Alexander Bell, had forged for himself a reputation as an impressive, if under employed, actor and orator. Endowed with a commanding speaking voice and considerable physical bearing, Alexander Bell sought to unleash in others the full potential of the spoken word. His attention was especially drawn to those for whom the act of speaking presented daunting challenges. His work with such individuals led him to publish writings that included, The Practical Elocutionist and Stammering and Other Impediments of Speech. By 1838, he was regularly being referred to in the London press as "the celebrated Professor of Elocution."
The elder Mr. Bell infused in his sons David and Melville a similar interest in the mechanics and methods of vocal communication. David's professional and personal pursuits led him to marriage and a career as a teacher of speech in Dublin, while Melville enthusiastically joined his father in his elocutionary endeavors.
Melville's keen interest in speech pathologies was undoubtedly sharpened when he found himself falling in love with a deaf woman he would eventually ask to be his wife. Eliza Grace Symonds, a painter of miniatures, was nearly ten years Melville's senior. Nevertheless, her sweet temper and refined intellect were more than enough to win his lifelong adoration and devotion. Despite being held captive in a world of virtual silence, Eliza Grace Bell developed into a talented pianist whose tenacity and determination to "hear" would especially entrance her second of three sons, Alexander Graham Bell.
A REAL SMART ALECK
Young Alexander Graham Bell, Aleck as he was known to his family, took to reading and writing at a precociously young age. Bell family lore told of his insistence upon mailing a letter to a family friend well before he had grasped any understanding of the alphabet. As he matured, Aleck displayed what came to be known as a Bell family trademark--an expressive, flexible, and resonant speaking voice.
It was through use of this impressive vocal instrument that Aleck forged a unique bond with his deaf mother. Unlike others, who spoke to Mrs. Bell through her ear tube, Aleck chose to communicate with her by speaking in low, sonorous tones very close to her forehead. Young Aleck surmised that his mother would be able to "hear" him through the vibrations his vocal intonations would make. This early insight would prove significant as Alexander Graham Bell went on to develop more elaborate theories regarding the characteristics of sound waves. It would also lend rationale to Bell's opinions as to how the deaf could be assimilated into a world of sound.
Edinburgh, Scotland in the mid-19th-century was brimming with scientific and technological developments. Within this inventive milieu, Alexander Graham Bell played the role of attentive observer and eager participant. One truth seemed inescapable: through technology came betterment.
At the age of 14, Bell conceived of a device designed to remove the husks from wheat by combining a nail brush and paddle into a rotary-brushing wheel. While visiting London with his father, Aleck was mesmerized by a demonstration of Sir Charles Wheatstone's "speaking machine." Upon their return to Edinburgh, Melville Bell, Sr. challenged Aleck and his older brother to come up with a model of their own.
Working out of their home, the industrious pair created an apparatus consisting of a facsimile mouth, throat, nose, maneuverable tongue, and bellow lungs. What's more, the contraption actually produced human-like sounds. Inspired by this success, Aleck went a step further and succeeded in manipulating the mouth and vocal chords of his Skye terrier so that the dog's growls were heard as words.
"
A VERY VALUABLE BLUNDER"
With each passing year, Alexander Graham Bell's intellectual horizons broadened. By the time he was 16, he was teaching music and elocution at a boy's boarding school. He and his brothers, Melville and Edward, traveled throughout Scotland impressing audiences with demonstrations of their father's Visible Speech techniques. Combining such ventures with continued study at the University of London, Alexander Graham Bell became intrigued by the writings of German physicist Hermann Von Helmholtz. Von Helmholtz had produced a thesis, On The Sensations of Tone, declaring that vowel sounds could be produced by a combination of electrical tuning forks and resonators. Bell's inability to read German did not deter him from hungrily consuming this information. It did however lead to his making what he would later describe as a "very valuable blunder."
Bell had somehow interpreted Von Helmholtz's findings as stating that vowel sounds could be transmitted over a wire. He would later say of this misunderstanding, "It gave me confidence. If I had been able to read German, I might never have begun my experiments in electricity."
THE DREAMING PLACE
In the midst of his early academic and professional success, the young Alexander Graham Bell was buffeted by a series of personal tragedies. Tuberculosis, the scourge of the late 19th century, claimed the lives of both of his brothers within the span of four months. Bell himself was battling the disease when, at age 23, he moved with his parents to Canada. Convalescing in what he called "his dreaming place"--a spacious farmhouse in Brantford, Ontario--Alexander Graham Bell was able to recover in mind and spirit, and dwell on his ever-expanding ambitions.
A TEACHER OF THE DEAF
In 1871, Bell began giving instruction in Visible Speech at the Boston School for Deaf Mutes. Attempting to teach deaf children to speak was considered revolutionary, and Bell was not without his detractors as he shunned what he felt were the exclusionary practices of signing and institutionalization. Bell's work with his deaf students in Boston would prove to be a watershed event in his life. One of his pupils, Mabel Hubbard, was the daughter of a man--Gardiner Greene Hubbard-- who would go on to play a vital role in Bell's life and work. While Mabel herself would one day become his wife. Bell felt that a course had been set and he would go on to consider himself, above all else, a teacher of the deaf. In testimony to the effectiveness of his work and generosity of his spirit, no lesser luminary than Helen Keller would dedicate her autobiography to him.
THE HARMONIC TELEGRAPH
Bell's ideas about transmitting speech electrically came into sharper focus during his days in Boston. As he read extensively on physics and devotedly attended lectures on science and technology, Bell worked to create what he called his "harmonic telegraph."
Since Samuel F.B. Morse completed his first telegraph line in 1843, telegraphy had blossomed into a full-fledged industry. This new industry meant nearly instantaneous communication between faraway points. While certainly a technological leap forward, successful telegraphy was nevertheless dependent upon hand-delivery of messages between telegraph stations and individuals. Also, only one message at a time could be transmitted.
Drawing parallels between multiple message and multiple notes in a musical chord, Bell arrived at his idea of the "harmonic telegraph." From this idea sprang the invention that made him immortal among inventors--the telephone.
A FATEFUL TWANG
The chance meeting between Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson at the electrical machine shop of Charles Williams was one of the most fortuitous in technological history. Recognized by his employer as being especially skilled in devising tools that improved the efficiency of various instruments, Watson was assigned to work with many nascent inventors. Alexander Graham Bell was just such an inventor. As the two collaborated on ways to refine Bell's "harmonic telegraph," Bell shared with Watson his vision of what would become the telephone. Watson was intrigued, and a partnership was forged.
June 2, 1875 was a milestone day for the team of Bell and Watson. Working in the transmitter room and trying to free a reed that had been too tightly wound to the pole of its electromagnet, Watson produced atwang . Bell, who had been working in the receiving room heard thetwang and came running. Bell surmised the complex overtones and timbre of the twang to be similar to those in the human voice. He was now convinced that his vision of sending speech over a wire was more than just a dream.
PATENT NUMBER 174,465
As Bell raced to perfect his telephone, he was also writing up specifications to be filed with the United States Patent Office in Washington. On March 7, 1876, he was issued patent number 174,465. Meanwhile, Bell had discovered that a wire vibrated by the voice while partially immersed in a conducting liquid, like mercury, could be made to vary its resistance and produce an undulating current. In other words, human speech could be transmitted over a wire.
On March 10, 1876, as he and Mr. Watson set out to test this finding, Bell knocked over what they were using as a transmitting liquid--battery acid. Reacting to the spilled acid, Mr. Bell is alleged to have shouted, "Mr. Watson, come here. I want you!" Exactly what Bell shouted--or whether the spilling of acid ever occurred-- is a matter of some dispute. Its result, however, is not. Watson, working in the next room, heard Bell's voice through the wire. Watson had received the first telephone call, and quickly went to answer it.
Seizing upon the opportunity to promote his new invention, Alexander Graham Bell introduced the telephone to the world at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876. Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro exclaimed, "My God, it talks," as Bell's mellifluous voice carried Hamlet's soliloquy over the line from the main building one hundred yards away. The success of Bell's telephone was now the talk of the international scientific community.
In 1878, Rutherford B. Hayes was the first US president to have a telephone installed in the White House. And to whom did the commander-in-chief place his first call? Alexander Graham Bell, of course, who was waiting for the call some 13 miles away from the White House. The president's first words were said to have been, "Please speak more slowly."
BIG BUSINESS
In the wake of Bell's invention of the telephone came an avalanche of patent lawsuits and corporate maneuvers. Western Union Telegraph Company was the titan in the field of telegraphy and was not content to sit on the sidelines as the Bell Telephone Company captured the spotlight. Feverishly working to develop their own telephone technology, Western Union employed two prominent inventors--Thomas A. Edison and Elisha Gray. Looking to protect its patent rights, the Bell Company sued Western Union and won. In the years that followed, the Bell Company (which would eventually become AT&T) would be forced to defend its patent in over 600 legal challenges. In every case, the patent withstood attack thanks largely to Alexander Graham Bell's clear and convincing testimony.
In 1847, Alexander Graham Bell was born into a family with a passion for communication. His grandfather, also named Alexander Bell, had forged for himself a reputation as an impressive, if under employed, actor and orator. Endowed with a commanding speaking voice and considerable physical bearing, Alexander Bell sought to unleash in others the full potential of the spoken word. His attention was especially drawn to those for whom the act of speaking presented daunting challenges. His work with such individuals led him to publish writings that included, The Practical Elocutionist and Stammering and Other Impediments of Speech. By 1838, he was regularly being referred to in the London press as "the celebrated Professor of Elocution."
The elder Mr. Bell infused in his sons David and Melville a similar interest in the mechanics and methods of vocal communication. David's professional and personal pursuits led him to marriage and a career as a teacher of speech in Dublin, while Melville enthusiastically joined his father in his elocutionary endeavors.
Melville's keen interest in speech pathologies was undoubtedly sharpened when he found himself falling in love with a deaf woman he would eventually ask to be his wife. Eliza Grace Symonds, a painter of miniatures, was nearly ten years Melville's senior. Nevertheless, her sweet temper and refined intellect were more than enough to win his lifelong adoration and devotion. Despite being held captive in a world of virtual silence, Eliza Grace Bell developed into a talented pianist whose tenacity and determination to "hear" would especially entrance her second of three sons, Alexander Graham Bell.
A REAL SMART ALECK
Young Alexander Graham Bell, Aleck as he was known to his family, took to reading and writing at a precociously young age. Bell family lore told of his insistence upon mailing a letter to a family friend well before he had grasped any understanding of the alphabet. As he matured, Aleck displayed what came to be known as a Bell family trademark--an expressive, flexible, and resonant speaking voice.
It was through use of this impressive vocal instrument that Aleck forged a unique bond with his deaf mother. Unlike others, who spoke to Mrs. Bell through her ear tube, Aleck chose to communicate with her by speaking in low, sonorous tones very close to her forehead. Young Aleck surmised that his mother would be able to "hear" him through the vibrations his vocal intonations would make. This early insight would prove significant as Alexander Graham Bell went on to develop more elaborate theories regarding the characteristics of sound waves. It would also lend rationale to Bell's opinions as to how the deaf could be assimilated into a world of sound.
Edinburgh, Scotland in the mid-19th-century was brimming with scientific and technological developments. Within this inventive milieu, Alexander Graham Bell played the role of attentive observer and eager participant. One truth seemed inescapable: through technology came betterment.
At the age of 14, Bell conceived of a device designed to remove the husks from wheat by combining a nail brush and paddle into a rotary-brushing wheel. While visiting London with his father, Aleck was mesmerized by a demonstration of Sir Charles Wheatstone's "speaking machine." Upon their return to Edinburgh, Melville Bell, Sr. challenged Aleck and his older brother to come up with a model of their own.
Working out of their home, the industrious pair created an apparatus consisting of a facsimile mouth, throat, nose, maneuverable tongue, and bellow lungs. What's more, the contraption actually produced human-like sounds. Inspired by this success, Aleck went a step further and succeeded in manipulating the mouth and vocal chords of his Skye terrier so that the dog's growls were heard as words.
"
A VERY VALUABLE BLUNDER"
With each passing year, Alexander Graham Bell's intellectual horizons broadened. By the time he was 16, he was teaching music and elocution at a boy's boarding school. He and his brothers, Melville and Edward, traveled throughout Scotland impressing audiences with demonstrations of their father's Visible Speech techniques. Combining such ventures with continued study at the University of London, Alexander Graham Bell became intrigued by the writings of German physicist Hermann Von Helmholtz. Von Helmholtz had produced a thesis, On The Sensations of Tone, declaring that vowel sounds could be produced by a combination of electrical tuning forks and resonators. Bell's inability to read German did not deter him from hungrily consuming this information. It did however lead to his making what he would later describe as a "very valuable blunder."
Bell had somehow interpreted Von Helmholtz's findings as stating that vowel sounds could be transmitted over a wire. He would later say of this misunderstanding, "It gave me confidence. If I had been able to read German, I might never have begun my experiments in electricity."
THE DREAMING PLACE
In the midst of his early academic and professional success, the young Alexander Graham Bell was buffeted by a series of personal tragedies. Tuberculosis, the scourge of the late 19th century, claimed the lives of both of his brothers within the span of four months. Bell himself was battling the disease when, at age 23, he moved with his parents to Canada. Convalescing in what he called "his dreaming place"--a spacious farmhouse in Brantford, Ontario--Alexander Graham Bell was able to recover in mind and spirit, and dwell on his ever-expanding ambitions.
A TEACHER OF THE DEAF
In 1871, Bell began giving instruction in Visible Speech at the Boston School for Deaf Mutes. Attempting to teach deaf children to speak was considered revolutionary, and Bell was not without his detractors as he shunned what he felt were the exclusionary practices of signing and institutionalization. Bell's work with his deaf students in Boston would prove to be a watershed event in his life. One of his pupils, Mabel Hubbard, was the daughter of a man--Gardiner Greene Hubbard-- who would go on to play a vital role in Bell's life and work. While Mabel herself would one day become his wife. Bell felt that a course had been set and he would go on to consider himself, above all else, a teacher of the deaf. In testimony to the effectiveness of his work and generosity of his spirit, no lesser luminary than Helen Keller would dedicate her autobiography to him.
THE HARMONIC TELEGRAPH
Bell's ideas about transmitting speech electrically came into sharper focus during his days in Boston. As he read extensively on physics and devotedly attended lectures on science and technology, Bell worked to create what he called his "harmonic telegraph."
Since Samuel F.B. Morse completed his first telegraph line in 1843, telegraphy had blossomed into a full-fledged industry. This new industry meant nearly instantaneous communication between faraway points. While certainly a technological leap forward, successful telegraphy was nevertheless dependent upon hand-delivery of messages between telegraph stations and individuals. Also, only one message at a time could be transmitted.
Drawing parallels between multiple message and multiple notes in a musical chord, Bell arrived at his idea of the "harmonic telegraph." From this idea sprang the invention that made him immortal among inventors--the telephone.
A FATEFUL TWANG
The chance meeting between Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson at the electrical machine shop of Charles Williams was one of the most fortuitous in technological history. Recognized by his employer as being especially skilled in devising tools that improved the efficiency of various instruments, Watson was assigned to work with many nascent inventors. Alexander Graham Bell was just such an inventor. As the two collaborated on ways to refine Bell's "harmonic telegraph," Bell shared with Watson his vision of what would become the telephone. Watson was intrigued, and a partnership was forged.
June 2, 1875 was a milestone day for the team of Bell and Watson. Working in the transmitter room and trying to free a reed that had been too tightly wound to the pole of its electromagnet, Watson produced atwang . Bell, who had been working in the receiving room heard thetwang and came running. Bell surmised the complex overtones and timbre of the twang to be similar to those in the human voice. He was now convinced that his vision of sending speech over a wire was more than just a dream.
PATENT NUMBER 174,465
As Bell raced to perfect his telephone, he was also writing up specifications to be filed with the United States Patent Office in Washington. On March 7, 1876, he was issued patent number 174,465. Meanwhile, Bell had discovered that a wire vibrated by the voice while partially immersed in a conducting liquid, like mercury, could be made to vary its resistance and produce an undulating current. In other words, human speech could be transmitted over a wire.
On March 10, 1876, as he and Mr. Watson set out to test this finding, Bell knocked over what they were using as a transmitting liquid--battery acid. Reacting to the spilled acid, Mr. Bell is alleged to have shouted, "Mr. Watson, come here. I want you!" Exactly what Bell shouted--or whether the spilling of acid ever occurred-- is a matter of some dispute. Its result, however, is not. Watson, working in the next room, heard Bell's voice through the wire. Watson had received the first telephone call, and quickly went to answer it.
Seizing upon the opportunity to promote his new invention, Alexander Graham Bell introduced the telephone to the world at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876. Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro exclaimed, "My God, it talks," as Bell's mellifluous voice carried Hamlet's soliloquy over the line from the main building one hundred yards away. The success of Bell's telephone was now the talk of the international scientific community.
In 1878, Rutherford B. Hayes was the first US president to have a telephone installed in the White House. And to whom did the commander-in-chief place his first call? Alexander Graham Bell, of course, who was waiting for the call some 13 miles away from the White House. The president's first words were said to have been, "Please speak more slowly."
BIG BUSINESS
In the wake of Bell's invention of the telephone came an avalanche of patent lawsuits and corporate maneuvers. Western Union Telegraph Company was the titan in the field of telegraphy and was not content to sit on the sidelines as the Bell Telephone Company captured the spotlight. Feverishly working to develop their own telephone technology, Western Union employed two prominent inventors--Thomas A. Edison and Elisha Gray. Looking to protect its patent rights, the Bell Company sued Western Union and won. In the years that followed, the Bell Company (which would eventually become AT&T) would be forced to defend its patent in over 600 legal challenges. In every case, the patent withstood attack thanks largely to Alexander Graham Bell's clear and convincing testimony.
BEGIN STEAM ENGINE ( AWAL MESIN UAP )
Awal dari mesin uap
James Watt, the son of a merchant, was born in Greenock, Scotland, in 1736. At the age of nineteen Watt was sent to Glasgow to learn the trade of a mathematical-instrument maker. After spending a year in London, Watt returned to Glasgow in 1757 where he established his own instrument-making business. Watt soon developed a reputation as a high quality engineer and was employed on the Forth & Clyde Canal and the Caledonian Canal. He was also engaged in the improvement of harbours and in the deepening of the Forth, Clyde and other rivers in Scotland. In 1763 Watt was sent a Newcomen steam engine to repair. While putting it back into working order, Watt discovered how he could make the engine more efficient. Watt worked on the idea for several months and eventually produced a steam engine that cooled the used steam in a condenser separate from the main cylinder. James Watt was not a wealthy man so he decided to seek a partner with money. John Roebuck, the owner of a Scottish ironworks, agreed to provide financial backing for Watt's project. When Roebuck went bankrupt in 1773, Watt took his ideas to Matthew Boulton, a successful businessman from Birmingham. For the next eleven years Boulton's factory producing and selling Watt's steam-engines. These machines were mainly sold to colliery owners who used them to pump water from their mines. Watt's machine was very popular because it was four times more powerful than those that had been based on the Thomas Newcomen design. Watt continued to experiment and in 1781 he produced a rotary-motion steam engine. Whereas his earlier machine, with its up-and-down pumping action, was ideal for draining mines, this new steam engine could be used to drive many different types of machinery. Richard Arkwright was quick to importance of this new invention, and in 1783 he began using Watt's steam-engine in his textile factories. Others followed his lead and by 1800 there were over 500 of Watt's machines in Britain's mines and factories.
Industrial Revolutionaries
The Lunar Men
In 1755 Watt had been granted a patent by Parliament that prevented anybody else from making a steam-engine like the one he had developed. For the next twenty-five years, the Boulton & Watt company had a virtual monopoly over the production of steam-engines. Watt charged his customers a premium for using his steam engines. To justify this he compared his machine to a horse. Watt calculated that a horse exerted a pull of 180 lb., therefore, when he made a machine, he described its power in relation to a horse, i.e. "a 20 horse-power engine". Watt worked out how much each company saved by using his machine rather than a team of horses. The company then had to pay him one third of this figure every year, for the next twenty-five years. When James Watt died in 1819 he was a very wealthy man.
James Watt, the son of a merchant, was born in Greenock, Scotland, in 1736. At the age of nineteen Watt was sent to Glasgow to learn the trade of a mathematical-instrument maker. After spending a year in London, Watt returned to Glasgow in 1757 where he established his own instrument-making business. Watt soon developed a reputation as a high quality engineer and was employed on the Forth & Clyde Canal and the Caledonian Canal. He was also engaged in the improvement of harbours and in the deepening of the Forth, Clyde and other rivers in Scotland. In 1763 Watt was sent a Newcomen steam engine to repair. While putting it back into working order, Watt discovered how he could make the engine more efficient. Watt worked on the idea for several months and eventually produced a steam engine that cooled the used steam in a condenser separate from the main cylinder. James Watt was not a wealthy man so he decided to seek a partner with money. John Roebuck, the owner of a Scottish ironworks, agreed to provide financial backing for Watt's project. When Roebuck went bankrupt in 1773, Watt took his ideas to Matthew Boulton, a successful businessman from Birmingham. For the next eleven years Boulton's factory producing and selling Watt's steam-engines. These machines were mainly sold to colliery owners who used them to pump water from their mines. Watt's machine was very popular because it was four times more powerful than those that had been based on the Thomas Newcomen design. Watt continued to experiment and in 1781 he produced a rotary-motion steam engine. Whereas his earlier machine, with its up-and-down pumping action, was ideal for draining mines, this new steam engine could be used to drive many different types of machinery. Richard Arkwright was quick to importance of this new invention, and in 1783 he began using Watt's steam-engine in his textile factories. Others followed his lead and by 1800 there were over 500 of Watt's machines in Britain's mines and factories.
Industrial Revolutionaries
The Lunar Men
In 1755 Watt had been granted a patent by Parliament that prevented anybody else from making a steam-engine like the one he had developed. For the next twenty-five years, the Boulton & Watt company had a virtual monopoly over the production of steam-engines. Watt charged his customers a premium for using his steam engines. To justify this he compared his machine to a horse. Watt calculated that a horse exerted a pull of 180 lb., therefore, when he made a machine, he described its power in relation to a horse, i.e. "a 20 horse-power engine". Watt worked out how much each company saved by using his machine rather than a team of horses. The company then had to pay him one third of this figure every year, for the next twenty-five years. When James Watt died in 1819 he was a very wealthy man.
BEGIN COMPUTER (AWAL COMPUTER )
Awal dari computer
Born December 26, 1791 in Teignmouth, Devonshire UK, Died 1871, London; Known to some as the "Father of Computing" for his contributions to the basic design of the computer through his Analytical machine. His previous Difference Engine was a special purpose device intended for the production of tables.
While he did produce prototypes of portions of the Difference Engine, it was left to Georg and Edvard Schuetz to construct the first working devices to the same design which were successful in limited applications.
Significant Events in His Life: 1791: Born; 1810: Entered Trinity College, Cambridge; 1814: graduated Peterhouse; 1817 received MA from Cambridge; 1820: founded the Analytical Society with Herschel and Peacock; 1823: started work on the Difference Engine through funding from the British Government; 1827: published a table of logarithms from 1 to 108000; 1828: appointed to the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge (never presented a lecture); 1831: founded the British Association for the Advancement of Science; 1832: published "Economy of Manufactures and Machinery"; 1833: began work on the Analytical Engine; 1834: founded the Statistical Society of London; 1864: published Passages from the Life of a Philosopher; 1871: Died.
Other inventions:
The cowcatcher, dynamometer, standard railroad gauge, uniform postal rates, occulting lights for lighthouses, Greenwich time signals, heliograph opthalmoscope. He also had an interest in cyphers and lock-picking, but abhorred street musicians.
BABBAGE OBSERVED[1]
Near the northern pole of the moon there is a crater named for Charles Babbage. When he died in 1871, however, few people knew who he was. Only one carriage (the Duchess of Somerset's) followed in the burial procession that took his remains to Kensal Green Cemetery. The Royal Society printed no obituary, and the Times ridiculed him. The parts of the Difference Engine that had seemed possible of completion in 1830 gathered dust in the Museum of King's College.
In 1878 The Cayley committee told the government not to bother constructing Babbage's Analytical Engine. By the 1880's Babbage was known primarily for his reform of mathematics at Cambridge. In 1899 the magazine Temple Bar reported that "the present generation appears to have forgotten Babbage and his calculating machine". In 1908, after being preserved for 37 years in alcohol, Babbage's brain was dissected by Sir Victor Horsley of the Royal Society. Horsley had to remind the society that Babbage had been a "very profound thinker".
Charles Babbage was born in Devonshire in 1791. Like John von Neumann, he was the son of a banker - Benjamin (Old Five Percent) Babbage. He attended Trinity College, Cambridge, receiving his MA in 1817. As the inventor of the first universal digital computer, he can indeed be considered a profound thinker. The use of Jacquard punch cards, of chains and subassemblies, and ultimately the logical structure of the modern computer - all come from Babbage.
Popularly, Babbage is a sort of Abner Doubleday of data processing, a colorful fellow whose portrait hangs in the anteroom but whose actual import is slight. He is thought about, if at all, as a funny sort of distracted character with dirty collar. But Babbage was much more than that. He was an amazing intelligence.
THE PHILOSOPHER
Babbage was an aesthete, but not a typical Victorian one. He found beauty in things: in stamped buttons, stomach pumps, railways and tunnels, in man's mastery over nature.
A social man, he was obliged to attend the theater. While others dozed at Mozart, Babbage grew restless. "Somewhat fatigued with the opera [Don Juan]", he writes in the autobiographical Passages From the Life of a Philosopher, "I went behind the scenes to look at the mechanism". There, a workman offered to show him around. Deserted when his Cicerone answered a cue, he met two actors dressed at "devils with long forked tails". The devils were to convey Juan, via trapdoor and stage elevator, to hell.
In his box at the German Opera some time later (again not watching the stage), Babbage noticed "in the cloister scene at midnight" that his companion's white bonnet had a pink tint. He thought about "producing colored lights for theatrical representation". In order to have something on which to shine his experimental lights, Babbage devised "Alethes and Iris", a ballet in which 60 damsels in white were to dance. In the final scene, a series of dioramas were to represent Alethes' travels. One diorama would show animals "whose remains are contained in each successive layer of the earth. In the lower portions, symptoms of increasing heat show themselves until the centre is reached, which contains a liquid transparent sea, consisting of some fluid at white heat, which, however, is filled up with little infinitesimal eels, all of one sort, wriggling eternally".
Two fire engines stood ready for the "experiment of the dance", as Babbage termed the rehearsal. Dancers "danced and attitudinized" while he shone colored lights on them. But the theater manager feared fire, and the ballet was never publicly staged.
Babbage enjoyed fire. He once was baked in an oven at 265oF for "five or six minutes without any great discomfort", and on another occasion was lowered into Mt. Vesuvius to view molten lava. Did he ponder Hell? He had considered becoming a cleric, but this was not an unusual choice for the affluent graduate with little interest in business or law. In 1837 he published his Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, to reconcile his scientific beliefs with Christian dogma. Babbage argued that miracles were not, as Hume write, violations of laws of nature, but could exist in a mechanistic world. As Babbage could program long series on his calculating machines, God could program similar irregularities in nature.
Babbage investigated biblical miracles. "In the course of his analysis", wrote B. V. Bowden in Faster than Thought (Pitman, London, 1971), "he made the assumption that the chance of a man rising from the dead is one in 10^12". Miracles are not, as he wrote in Passages From the Life of a Philosopher, "the breach of established laws, but... indicate the existence of far higher laws.
Born December 26, 1791 in Teignmouth, Devonshire UK, Died 1871, London; Known to some as the "Father of Computing" for his contributions to the basic design of the computer through his Analytical machine. His previous Difference Engine was a special purpose device intended for the production of tables.
While he did produce prototypes of portions of the Difference Engine, it was left to Georg and Edvard Schuetz to construct the first working devices to the same design which were successful in limited applications.
Significant Events in His Life: 1791: Born; 1810: Entered Trinity College, Cambridge; 1814: graduated Peterhouse; 1817 received MA from Cambridge; 1820: founded the Analytical Society with Herschel and Peacock; 1823: started work on the Difference Engine through funding from the British Government; 1827: published a table of logarithms from 1 to 108000; 1828: appointed to the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge (never presented a lecture); 1831: founded the British Association for the Advancement of Science; 1832: published "Economy of Manufactures and Machinery"; 1833: began work on the Analytical Engine; 1834: founded the Statistical Society of London; 1864: published Passages from the Life of a Philosopher; 1871: Died.
Other inventions:
The cowcatcher, dynamometer, standard railroad gauge, uniform postal rates, occulting lights for lighthouses, Greenwich time signals, heliograph opthalmoscope. He also had an interest in cyphers and lock-picking, but abhorred street musicians.
BABBAGE OBSERVED[1]
Near the northern pole of the moon there is a crater named for Charles Babbage. When he died in 1871, however, few people knew who he was. Only one carriage (the Duchess of Somerset's) followed in the burial procession that took his remains to Kensal Green Cemetery. The Royal Society printed no obituary, and the Times ridiculed him. The parts of the Difference Engine that had seemed possible of completion in 1830 gathered dust in the Museum of King's College.
In 1878 The Cayley committee told the government not to bother constructing Babbage's Analytical Engine. By the 1880's Babbage was known primarily for his reform of mathematics at Cambridge. In 1899 the magazine Temple Bar reported that "the present generation appears to have forgotten Babbage and his calculating machine". In 1908, after being preserved for 37 years in alcohol, Babbage's brain was dissected by Sir Victor Horsley of the Royal Society. Horsley had to remind the society that Babbage had been a "very profound thinker".
Charles Babbage was born in Devonshire in 1791. Like John von Neumann, he was the son of a banker - Benjamin (Old Five Percent) Babbage. He attended Trinity College, Cambridge, receiving his MA in 1817. As the inventor of the first universal digital computer, he can indeed be considered a profound thinker. The use of Jacquard punch cards, of chains and subassemblies, and ultimately the logical structure of the modern computer - all come from Babbage.
Popularly, Babbage is a sort of Abner Doubleday of data processing, a colorful fellow whose portrait hangs in the anteroom but whose actual import is slight. He is thought about, if at all, as a funny sort of distracted character with dirty collar. But Babbage was much more than that. He was an amazing intelligence.
THE PHILOSOPHER
Babbage was an aesthete, but not a typical Victorian one. He found beauty in things: in stamped buttons, stomach pumps, railways and tunnels, in man's mastery over nature.
A social man, he was obliged to attend the theater. While others dozed at Mozart, Babbage grew restless. "Somewhat fatigued with the opera [Don Juan]", he writes in the autobiographical Passages From the Life of a Philosopher, "I went behind the scenes to look at the mechanism". There, a workman offered to show him around. Deserted when his Cicerone answered a cue, he met two actors dressed at "devils with long forked tails". The devils were to convey Juan, via trapdoor and stage elevator, to hell.
In his box at the German Opera some time later (again not watching the stage), Babbage noticed "in the cloister scene at midnight" that his companion's white bonnet had a pink tint. He thought about "producing colored lights for theatrical representation". In order to have something on which to shine his experimental lights, Babbage devised "Alethes and Iris", a ballet in which 60 damsels in white were to dance. In the final scene, a series of dioramas were to represent Alethes' travels. One diorama would show animals "whose remains are contained in each successive layer of the earth. In the lower portions, symptoms of increasing heat show themselves until the centre is reached, which contains a liquid transparent sea, consisting of some fluid at white heat, which, however, is filled up with little infinitesimal eels, all of one sort, wriggling eternally".
Two fire engines stood ready for the "experiment of the dance", as Babbage termed the rehearsal. Dancers "danced and attitudinized" while he shone colored lights on them. But the theater manager feared fire, and the ballet was never publicly staged.
Babbage enjoyed fire. He once was baked in an oven at 265oF for "five or six minutes without any great discomfort", and on another occasion was lowered into Mt. Vesuvius to view molten lava. Did he ponder Hell? He had considered becoming a cleric, but this was not an unusual choice for the affluent graduate with little interest in business or law. In 1837 he published his Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, to reconcile his scientific beliefs with Christian dogma. Babbage argued that miracles were not, as Hume write, violations of laws of nature, but could exist in a mechanistic world. As Babbage could program long series on his calculating machines, God could program similar irregularities in nature.
Babbage investigated biblical miracles. "In the course of his analysis", wrote B. V. Bowden in Faster than Thought (Pitman, London, 1971), "he made the assumption that the chance of a man rising from the dead is one in 10^12". Miracles are not, as he wrote in Passages From the Life of a Philosopher, "the breach of established laws, but... indicate the existence of far higher laws.
BEGIN CAR ( AWAL MOBIL )
Awal dari car
Henry Ford, born July 30, 1863, was the first of William and Mary Ford's six children. He grew up on a prosperous family farm in what is today Dearborn, Michigan. Henry enjoyed a childhood typical of the rural nineteenth century, spending days in a one-room school and doing farm chores. At an early age, he showed an interest in mechanical things and a dislike for farm work.
In 1879, sixteen-year-old Ford left home for the nearby city of Detroit to work as an apprentice machinist, although he did occasionally return to help on the farm. He remained an apprentice for three years and then returned to Dearborn. During the next few years, Henry divided his time between operating or repairing steam engines, finding occasional work in a Detroit factory, and over-hauling his father's farm implements, as well as lending a reluctant hand with other farm work. Upon his marriage to Clara Bryant in 1888, Henry supported himself and his wife by running a sawmill.
In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company in Detroit. This event signified a conscious decision on Ford's part to dedicate his life to industrial pursuits. His promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893 gave him enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on internal combustion engines.
These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of his own self-propelled vehicle-the Quadricycle. The Quadricycle had four wire wheels that looked like heavy bicycle wheels, was steered with a tiller like a boat, and had only two forward speeds with no reverse.
Although Ford was not the first to build a self-propelled vehicle with a gasoline engine, he was, however, one of several automotive pioneers who helped this country become a nation of motorists.
Henry Ford, born July 30, 1863, was the first of William and Mary Ford's six children. He grew up on a prosperous family farm in what is today Dearborn, Michigan. Henry enjoyed a childhood typical of the rural nineteenth century, spending days in a one-room school and doing farm chores. At an early age, he showed an interest in mechanical things and a dislike for farm work.
In 1879, sixteen-year-old Ford left home for the nearby city of Detroit to work as an apprentice machinist, although he did occasionally return to help on the farm. He remained an apprentice for three years and then returned to Dearborn. During the next few years, Henry divided his time between operating or repairing steam engines, finding occasional work in a Detroit factory, and over-hauling his father's farm implements, as well as lending a reluctant hand with other farm work. Upon his marriage to Clara Bryant in 1888, Henry supported himself and his wife by running a sawmill.
In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company in Detroit. This event signified a conscious decision on Ford's part to dedicate his life to industrial pursuits. His promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893 gave him enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on internal combustion engines.
These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of his own self-propelled vehicle-the Quadricycle. The Quadricycle had four wire wheels that looked like heavy bicycle wheels, was steered with a tiller like a boat, and had only two forward speeds with no reverse.
Although Ford was not the first to build a self-propelled vehicle with a gasoline engine, he was, however, one of several automotive pioneers who helped this country become a nation of motorists.
Kamis, 25 September 2008
AWAL MASUKNYA ISLAM DI JAWA BARAT
KESULTANAN Demak dengan rajanya Raden Patah (1475-1518), disebut-sebut sebagai awal kerajaan Islam pertama di Jawa. Padahal, kalau melihat sejarahnya dari berbagai sumber tertulis, pada sekitar tahun 1415 di Cirebon sudah berdiri lebih dulu kadipaten (kerajaan kecil) yang mengembangkan agama Islam di Jawa. Kadipaten itu dipimpin oleh Tumenggung Sri Mangana Cakrabuwana, putra Prabu Siliwangi dari Kerajaan Pajajaran yang beragama Hindu, yang memerintah sekitar abad XV.
KESULTANAN Demak dengan rajanya Raden Patah (1475-1518), disebut-sebut sebagai kerajaan Islam pertama di Jawa. Padahal, kalau melihat sejarahnya dari berbagai sumber tertulis, pada sekitar tahun 1415 di Cirebon sudah berdiri lebih dulu kadipaten (kerajaan kecil) yang mengembangkan agama Islam di Jawa. Kadipaten itu dipimpin oleh Tumenggung Sri Mangana Cakrabuwana, putra Prabu Siliwangi dari Kerajaan Pajajaran yang beragama Hindu, yang memerintah sekitar abad XV.
Tumenggung Sri Mangana Cakrabuwana itu perintis pengembangan masuknya Islam di Jawa. Jauh sebelum Demak berdiri tahun 1475. Dari pakuwon (bangunan kerajaan kecil) Pakungwati yang kini menjadi tempat berdirinya Keraton Kasepuhan Cirebon, Cakrabuwana telah mengembangkan Islam," kata budayawan Cirebon TD Sudjana yang banyak menerjemahkan karya-karya kuno seperti sastra, hukum dalam pemerintahan Keraton Kasepuhan.
Mantan Residen Cirebon RH Unang Sunardjo SH (almarhum) yang tekun membaca babat maupun sumber-sumber tertulis sejarah-yang kemudian menyusun buku berjudul Selayang Pandang Masa Kejayaan Keraton Cirebon-menyebutkan, Katemenggungan/Kadipaten Cirebon ini merupakan satu dari kerajaan-kerajaan kecil yang merupakan bagian negara federasi Kerajaan Pajajaran. Negara-negara kecil itu diperkenankan mengelola seluruh hasil bumi dan kegiatan perekonomiannya. Syaratnya, negara kecil ini harus menyerahkan hulu bekti (upeti) kepada Maharaja Pajajaran.
Tumenggung Sri Mangana Cakrabuwana yang bernama kecil Raden Walang Sungsang ini adalah anak hasil pernikahan Prabu Siliwangi dengan putri Cirebon Nyi Ratu Subang Larang anak dari Ki Ageng Tapa, Kepala Pelabuhan Muarajati, Cirebon. Cakrabuwana punya dua saudara, Raden Sangara dan Nyi Ratu Mas Rarasantang. Ketika ibunya meninggal, ketiga putra Prabu Siliwangi itu meninggalkan Istana Pajajaran dan memilih menetap di Cirebon, ikut kakeknya Ki Ageng Tapa.
Di rumah kakeknya itu, ketiganya memeluk Islam setelah masuk pesantren yang dipimpin Syeh Datuk Kafi. Setelah tamat, Cakrabuwana bekerja sebagai kepala desa (kuwu) Cirebon. Berangkat dari seorang kuwu inilah Raden Walang Sungsang menunjukkan kecakapannya. Ia mampu memperluas wilayahnya sampai daerah Tegal Alang-alang, melebihi ukuran sebuah desa. Makin banyak pula masyarakat pemeluk Islam-semula beragama Hindu karena pengaruh Pajajaran-di pantai utara Jawa khususnya di Cirebon dan sekitarnya. ***
APA yang dilakukan oleh Raden Walang Sungsang diketahui oleh ayahandanya Prabu Siliwangi, Maharaja Pajajaran. Namun, tindakan penyebaran Islam itu tidak dipermasalahkan oleh Prabu Siliwangi, karena kerja dalam pemerintahan Raden Walang Sungsang dinilai baik. Dalam memberikan upeti ke Pajajaran, juga tidak mengecewakan. Sayang, tidak diketahui pasti kapan penobatannya menjadi bupati. Dalam Babad Cirebon ataupun buku karya RH Unang Sunardjo SH itu juga tidak disebut tahun berapa penobatan itu. Yang jelas pada tahun 1415 Cakrabuwana sudah giat.
Justru karena prestasinya itu, Walang Sungsang oleh Prabu Siliwangi diangkat menjadi tumenggung, jabatan setingkat bupati yang menguasai wilayah Cirebon. Sejak menjadi tumenggung itulah Walang Sungsang diberi gelar Tumenggung Sri Mangana Cakrabuwana. Dia lantas membangun Pakuwon (keraton kecil) yang diberi nama Pakungwati (nama anak perempuannya).
Meski Katemenggungan Cirebon merupakan bagian dari wilayah besar Kerajaan Pajajaran yang berfaham Hindu, Cakrabuwana tetap terus mengembangkan agama Islam. Apa yang dilakukan Cakrabuwana tidak mendapat hambatan dari Pajajaran, karena dalam bekerja di pemerintahan dia tidak pernah mengecewakan Pajajaran.
"Jadi, Cakrabuwana waktu itu satu-satunya pejabat tinggi dari Kerajaan Pajajaran yang beragama Islam. Ada memang yang beragama Islam yaitu Ki Ageng Tapa, tetapi dia bukan penguasa daerah, hanya Kepala Pelabuhan Muarajati," kata TD Sudjana. Dia menambahkan, keberanian Cakrabuwana masuk Islam itulah yang akhirnya membawa Cirebon bisa menjadi Kerajaan Islam yang akhirnya mampu mendesak bubarnya Pajajaran, meskipun harus dengan peperangan.
"PENDEKNYA, Kerajaan Cirebon dan Kerajaan Banten dibantu Kerajaan Demak, yang membuat Agama Islam berkembang pesat di Jawa Barat," kata TD Sudjana. Raden Patah yang menjadi Sultan Demak itu pula yang akhirnya membantu Katemenggungan Cirebon menjadi keraton dengan peradaban Islam yang sangat berpengaruh di Jabar.
Ceritanya begini. Awalnya, setelah Tumenggung Cakrabuwana makin mampu meningkatkan kekuatannya dalam memimpin Katemenggungan Cirebon, dia ingin meningkatkan katemenggungan menjadi kerajaan Islam yang bebas berdaulat, mandiri tidak lagi di bawah kekuasaan Pajajaran. Karena itu, dia mengirim keponakannya Syarif Hidayatullah untuk pergi ke Kesultanan Demak.
Syarif Hidayatullah yang kemudian disebut Sunan Gunungjati adalah anak dari Nyai Ratu Rarasantang adik Tumenggung Cakrabuwana yang ketika pergi ke Arab menikah dengan Syarif Abdullah, Sultan Mesir. Tampaknya Cakrabuwana sudah mengenal Raden Patah. Karena itu, Syarif Hidayatullah diharapkan bisa membantu Raden Patah memperluas kerajaannya sebagai kerajaan Islam, sekaligus menyerap pengetahuan bila kemungkinan Cirebon bisa menjadi kerajaan yang mandiri.
Saat itu, antara tahun 1475-1479, Demak sedang melakukan kerja besar meruntuhkan Majapahit, yang memang sudah surut kekuatannya setelah pecah dua menjadi Majapahit barat tetap bernama Majapahit dan timur bernama Kerajaan Blambangan.
Dengan kekuatan yang dibantu Syarif Hidayatullah, Raden Patah-putra Majapahit terakhir yang bernama Bre Kertabumi-mampu menghanguskan pusat Kerajaan Majapahit yang sekarang diduga sebagai situs Trowulan. "Konon, Kertabumi, ayah Raden Patah tetap dihormati, diboyong ke Demak dan tinggal di kesultanan sampai akhir hayatnya," kata TD Sudjana.
Syarif Hidayatullah yang memang dikenal sebagai ahli penyusun strategi itu, oleh Raden Patah diperintahkan segera pulang ke Cirebon dan mendirikan kerajaan. Benar, tahun 1479 atau empat tahun setelah berdirinya Majapahit (1475), berdirilah Kerajaan Cirebon. Tumenggung Cakrabuwana yang sudah lama merintis kerajaan Islam tidak ingin memegang tampuk pimpinan sebagai Raja Cirebon.
Keraton Pakungwati diserahkan kepada Syarif Hidayatullah keponakannya itu, yang dinobatkan menjadi raja dan bergelar Susuhunan Jati Purba Wisesa yang terkenal pula dengan nama Syeh Maulana Jati (setelah meninggal disebut Sunan Gunungjati karena makamnya di daerah Gunungjati, Cirebon). Sunan Gunungjati kemudian menikahi Pakungwati, putri Tumenggung Cakrabuwana, dan menyatakan diri sebagai kerajaan Islam yang berdaulat, lepas dari Pajajaran.
Maulana Jati bukan saja mengembangkan Keraton Pakungwati yang sisanya masih tampak pada Keraton Kasepuhan sekarang, tetapi juga merencanakan pengembangan wilayah. Namun, tantangan dari Pajajaran juga cukup besar.
Sunan Gunungjati atau Maulana Jati memiliki strategi politik yang cukup cerdik. Yang dia lakukan terlebih dahulu adalah menyerang Banten, wilayah Pajajaran paling barat. Ketika Banten dikuasai, Sunan Gunungjati mengangkat putranya, Hasanuddin, menjadi adipati pertama di Banten. Adipati ini pula yang kemudian menjadikan Banten sebagai kesultanan, tahun 1532.
Kekuasaan Pajajaran makin tergerogoti oleh Cirebon. Bahkan, atas bantuan tentara Kesultanan Demak, sultan kedua di Banten bernama Sultan Maulana Yusuf yang menggantikan Sultan Hassunuddin, tahun 1568, menyerbu Pajajaran yang waktu itu diperintah oleh Maharaja Sri Bima Utarayana Mandura, pengganti Prabu Siliwangi. Cirebon bersama Banten akhirnya menguasai seluruh Jawa Barat. Tamatlah riwayat Kerajaan Pajajaran, kerajaan besar yang menganut faham Hindu Mahayana, dan berkibarlah Cirebon-bersama Banten-sebagai kerajaan Islam di Jawa Barat. ***
SURUTNYA Cirebon setelah penguasa Mataram (Mataram perkembangan dari Kesultanan Demak) ingkar janji, bahwa kerajaan besar dengan rajanya Sultan Agung Anyokrokusumo itu sekali-kali tidak akan menguasai Kesultanan Banten dan Keraton Cirebon, sebagai wujud penghormatan terhadap kerukunan Kerajaan Demak, Cirebon, dan Banten. Namun, kegagalan Sultan Agung mengusir VOC dari Batavia, tahun 1628 dan 1629, mendorong Sultan Agung terusik hatinya untuk menguasai Jawa Barat.
Hanya dengan menguasai Jabar itu, dalam pandangan Sultan Agung, VOC bisa terkalahkan. Benar juga, tahun 1640 rencana Sultan Agung terwujud. Selain Banten dan Cirebon, semua kabupaten di Jabar dapat dikuasai oleh Sultan Agung.
Atas perlakukan Raja Mataram itu, Sultan Banten Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa-sebagai saudara serumpun-tidak tinggal diam. Atas bantuan Trunojoyo dari Madura, Banten menyerang Cirebon, tahun 1667. Martadipa yang memang sudah uzur menyerah dan pulang ke Mataram. Putra bungsu Pengeran Adipati Cirebon I yang bernama Wangsakerta, yang sedianya akan menyusul ayahnya menjadi tahanan politik di Kerajaan Mataram, digagalkan oleh Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa. Dia dibawa ke Banten dan dilantik menjadi sultan.
Penyerangan ke Mataram hanya dilakukan oleh Trunojoyo sendiri yang memang dikenal pemberani. Sultan Banten hanya membantu persenjataan dan 22 perahu. Mataram cukup pontang-panting menghadapi pemberontakan Trunojoyo ini. Trunojoyo yang ibunya sempat menjadi selir Sultan Agung ini, sangat benci kepada Amangkurat yang sangat kejam dan akrab dengan Belanda.
Putra kedua Pangeran Dipati Cirebon, Kertawijaya, yang mendampingi ayahnya saat meninggal cepat-cepat dipulangkan ke Cirebon. Oleh Sultan Banten, Kertawijaya dilantik menjadi Sultan Cirebon menggantikan adiknya Wangsakerta yang sebelumnya dilantik sebagai pejabat sementara.
Namun, beberapa saat setelah Kertawijaya dilantik, pasukan Trunojoyo mengantarkan putra sulung, Martawijaya, yang paling berhak menduduki Keraton Cirebon. Karena ketiganya sudah dilantik menjadi Sultan Cirebon, maka Sultan Banten Ageng Tirtayasa menetapkan ketiganya sebagai raja.
Sebagai anak sulung, Martawijaya diberi gelar Sultan Sepuh I. Adiknya, Kertawijaya, diberi gelar dan berganti nama Pangeran Mohammad Badrudin bergelar Sultan Anom Pertama, dan si bungsu Wangsawijaya yang menjadi pejabat sementara kepala pemerintahan, diberi gelar Panembahan Gusti atau Panembahan Tohpati.
Dari kasus itulah, terhitung sejak pertengahan abad XVII di Cirebon ada tiga kerajaan, yaitu Kasepuhan, Kanoman, dan Kacirebonan. Tiga bangunan itu sampai sekarang masih ada, walaupun kondisinya kian memprihatinkan. Keturunan ketiga kerajaan yang secara intern berkuasa di bangunan tua itu, tidak memiliki dana cukup untuk mewujudkan kebesaran keraton sebagai peninggalan budaya, perintis kerajaan Islam di Jawa. (top)
AWAL BENCANA MUSLIM
Bencana ummat islam pada masa awal islam, dimana sudah terjadi perselisihan dan perpecahan antar kekuatan, terutama sekali yang berkaitan dengan politik dan keinginan berkuasa salah satu pihak. Ada yang mengatakan bahwa kejadian-kejadian perselisihan dan perang saudara pada masa awal islam (setelah rasul wafat) membuktikan bahwa islam tidak bisa menjadi pegangan untuk keselamatan pengikutnya apalagi untuk rahmatan lil’alamin. Dengan alasan ini pula para pembenci islam berusaha menjatuhkan citra islam dengan berbagai trik dan pemutarbalikan fakta untuk mendukung misi mereka merontokkkan keyakinan islam.
Beberapa hal yang perlu dicermati dari perselisihan umat islam di masa-masa awal adalah:
1. Banyak pihak asing (non-islam) yang bersekutu dengan orang islam munafiq yang berusaha menyelewengkan ajaran dan aqidah islam. Mereka ini bahkan telah ada semenjak masa rasul masih hidup. Mereka biasa menghasut (provokasi), merusak tatanan yang telah diperintahkan nabi, dan lain sebagainya, sehingga muncul ketidaktentraman sosial yang selanjutnya dengan stabilitas kurang tertata, mereka sedikit demi sedikit membelokkan Alquran dan Sunnah dengan dalih untuk menyelesaikan masalah-masalah baru yang semakin kompleks. Usaha ini banyak mencapai keberhasilan karena sang pemersatu pemikiran umat islam yaitu Muhammad saw telah wafat. Pemikiranpun berkembang kemana-mana susah untuk diarahkan dan dikendalikan. (Keadaan Indonesia sekarang serupa dengan masa-masa awal islam tersebut, banyak konflik ditambah adanya provokator yang mengail di air keruh).
2. Mulai adanya perubahan tatanan sosial dari islam sederhana ke islam yang kaya, megah dan berwilayah luas. Berkaitan dengan hal ini banyak peraturan yang dimunculkan dengan maksud menyelesaikan masalah tapi selalu saja ada yang menunggangi dan seringkali bermuatan politis. Diantaranya:
a). Khilafah bil intikhab dirubah sepihak menjadi khilafah bil waratsah.
b). Khalifah memakai jasa pengawal (pasukan khusus) bahkan di dalam Masjid.
c). Khalifah menggunakan singgasana dan baju kebesaran.
d). Muncul pembesar-pembesar egois memaksakan kehendak/kewenangannya.
e). dan lain sebagainya (bagi para ahli sejarah silahkan beri contoh lainnya).
Hal-hal tersebut banyak memicu kontroversi bagi umat, ada yang diam, setuju, dan ada yang menolak. Tatanan baru yang dimunculkan dan menjauhi tatanan islam itulah yang memberi celah bagi pihak-pihak tertentu (provokator) untuk mengembangbiakkan konflik dan menjauhkan pola pikir islami. Maka dengan menjauh dari aturan islam itulah yang merusak islam, bukan karena dijalankannya syariat islam.
Manusia adalah tempat salah dan lupa. Begitupun orang-orang islam yang dekat dengan masa awal islam. Sebagian ada yang tersilap, terdorong nafsu, dan lain sebagainya, tidak tertutup kemungkinan berbuat salah dan dosa. Ketika manusia yang salah itu tidak mau kembali lagi kepada ketetapan Alquran dan Sunnah maka muncullah anak-turun dan pengikut-pengikut generasi berikutnya yang juga terdidik dengan salah, apalagi didorong rasa cinta yang berlebihan kepada pendahulunya akhirnya memunculkan aliran sempalan baru dan semakin melenceng. Bukan karena menjalankan syariat terjadi perpecahan, tapi karena tidak mengikuti syariat itulah yang menambah keruh permasalahan.
Poin-poin penting yang harus diperhatikan:
1.Perbedaan dalam islam diperbolehkan dan bahkan menjadi rahmat, apabila kita mengerti ilmunya
2.Islam terpecah karena menjauhi syariat, bukan karena menjalankan syariat.
3.Perusak dan pemecah belah islam pada masa awal islam bukan dimunculkan oleh para sahabat nabi, tapi karena adanya dorongan dari para penghasut (provokator) dari munafiq maupun dari non islam.
4.Komunitas-komunitas islam banyak muncul sempalan adalah dikarenakan kebodohan umat yang mendapat pendidikan dan pengajaran oleh orang-orang sesat.
Ketidaktegasan pemimpin umat dalam meredam kegiatan-kegiatan orang-orang dan kelompok sesat dalam menyebarkan ideologi menyimpang mereka.
AWAL DITEMUKANNYA LISTRIK
Thomas Alva Edison, seorang penemu terbesar di dunia. Bayangkan, ia menemukan 3.000 penemuan, diantara-nya lampu listrik, sistim distribusi listrik, lokomotif listrik, stasiun tenaga listrik, mikrofon, kinetoskop (proyektor film), laboratori-um riset untuk industri, fonograf (berkembang jadi tape-recorder), dan kinetograf (kamera film).Ia anak bungsu dari tujuh bersaudara, lahir tanggal 11 Februari 1847 di Milan, Ohio, Amerika Serikat. Buah perkawinan Samuel Ogden, keturunan Belanda dengan Nancy Elliot. Sebagaimana umumnya orangtua, Samuel dan Nancy menyambut kelahiran anaknya dengan suka-cita. Tidak ada hal aneh dalam proses kelahiran anak ini. Namun setelah anak ini mulai bertumbuh, terlihat hal-hal ‘aneh’ yang membuatnya lain dari anak yang lain. Bayangkan, pada usia enam tahun ia pernah mengerami telur ayam.Setelah berumur 7 tahun, ia masuk sekolah. Tapi malang, tiga bulan kemudian ia dikeluarkan dari sekolah. Gurunya menilainya terlalu bodoh, tak mampu menerima pelajaran apa pun. Untunglah ibunya, Nancy, pernah berprofesi guru. Sang ibu mengajarnya membaca, menulis dan berhitung. Ternyata anak ini dengan cepat menyerap apa yang diajarkan ibunya.Anak ini kemudian sangat gemar membaca. la membaca berbagai jenis buku. Berjilid-jilid ensiklopedi dibacanya tanpa jemu. Ia juga membaca buku sejarah Inggris dan Romawi, Kamus IPA karangan Ure, dan Principia karangan Newton, dan buku Ilmu Kimia karangan Richard G. Parker.Selain itu, ia juga anak yang sangat memahami kondisi ekonomi orangtuanya. Pada umur 12 tahun ia tak enggan jadi pengasong koran, kacang, permen, dan kue di kereta api. Sebagian keuntungannya diberikan kepada orang tuanya. Hebatnya, saat berjualan di dalam kereta api itu, ia gemar pula melakukan berbagai eksprimen. Bahkan sempat menerbitkan koran Weekly Herald. Suatu ketika, saat bereksprimen, sebuah gerbong hampir terbakar karena cairan kimia tumpah. Kondektur amat marah dan menamparnya hingga pendengarannya rusak.Kemudian sejarah ilmu pengetahuan mencatat nama orang yang hidup tahun 1847-1931 ini (meninggal di West Orange, New York, pada tanggal 18 Oktober 1931 pada usia 84 tahun), sebagai penemu terbesar di dunia dengan 3000 penemuan. Ia bahkan pernah menemukan 400 macam penemuan dalam masa 13 bulan. *e-ti/tian dari berbagai sumber
AWAL DITEMUKANNYA MOBIL
Henry Ford dilahirkan pada tanggal 30 Juli 1863. Ia dimasukkan ke sekolahnya pada usia 5 tahun oleh ibunya. Ketika akan berangkat ia harus berlari-lari kecil menuju sekolahnya yang berjarak kurang lebih 2½ mil itu. Dan dengan jarak yang sama pula kembali pulang pada saat gelap telah turun, sampai di rumah. Dengan begitu ia harus membawa bekal dari rumah untuk makan siang di sekolahnya. Tiga tahun kemudian ia dipindahkan ke sekolah lain oleh orang tuanya tapi masih dalam jarak yang sama.Sejak masih kecil Henry telah menaruh perhatian yang besar terhadap berbagai mesin-mesin. Hal tersebut amat mencemaskan ayahnya. Ayahnya, William Ford menginginkan anaknya kelak menjadi seorang petani atau pedagang besar dan sukses karena ia sendiri adalah juga keturunan seorang petani. Akan tetapi Hendry tidak berminat terhadap pertanian. Kesukaannya kepada mesin-mesin itu kadang-kadang sering menyulitkannya, karena ia harus melawan kemauan ayahnya.Suatu hari seorang petani datang ke sekolah Henry sambil marah-marah. Ia mengadu kepada guru di sekolah itu, dan menceritakan perihal tingkah laku beberapa orang murid sekolah itu. Mereka dipimpin oleh Henry untuk membendung sebuah sungai kecil yang mengaliri ladang-ladang pertanian miliki petani tadi.Bendungan tersebut mengakibatkan aliran sungai menjadi terhenti dan mengakibatkan banjir yang tidak karuan. Sang guru langsung berpaling dan berkata kepada Henry, “Pekerjaan apa ini, Henry?”, Tanya gurunya dengan geram. “Mengapa, ee” jawab Hendry tanpa acuh, “Kami tidak melakukan apa pun dan membanjiri ladang itu, kami hanya membangun sebuah bendungan untuk membendung air guna mengadakan percobaan kincir air untuk penggilingan kopi. Bapak dapat melihatnya bagaimana hebatnya alat itu bekerja”. Elak Henry.Serta-merta gurunya itu marah dan mengukum Henry. Kemudian berkata kepada murid-murid yang lain, “Kalian harus belajar menghormati masyarakat, dan menolongnya. Bukankah saya selalu berpesan begitu setiap kali kalian akan pulang? (Kejengkelan tersebut diucapkan sang guru untuk menghibur si petani yang marah-marah tadi. Tapi ia tertarik dengan pekerjaan yang telah dilakukan oleh murid-muridnya).Setelah eksperimen di atas dianggap cukup berhasil, Hendry menjadi lebih tekun mempelajari cara-cara mesin bekerja. Di sekolahnya suatu ketika, sewaktu pelajaran, sedang berlangsung, dengan bangga ia bercerita kepada teman-temannya mengenai mesin-mesin yang diketahuinya. Teman-temannya itu menjadi tertarik dan berkerumun di sekelilingnya mengakibatkan pelajaran terganggu. Tiba-tiba gurunya datang ke tengah-tengah kerumunan itu. “Henry”, bentak gurunya dengan geram dan menatap para murid-muridnya, “Apakah kalian tidak pernah mencoba bagaimana untuk belajar yang baik? Apa gunanya kalian datang ke sekolah ini. Ha? Sekarang kalian bersama Henry harus tinggal di kelas sehabis pelajaran nanti”.Gurunya itu memberikan kepada mereka sebuah mesin yang telah dirusakkan lebih dulu. “Kalian harus membetulkan mesin ini!” Gertak gurunya itu. “Bilamana kalian tidak dapat memperbaikinya, kalian akan mendapat hukuman lagi”. Akan tetapi Henry dengan tangkas mengerjakan mesin tersebut hanya dalam jangka waktu kurang dari 10 menit segera selesai. Gurunya jadi kagum melihat bakat muridnya tersebut.Keterampilannya dalam bidang permesinan itu membuat ia mulai dikenal orang. Ia sering memperbaiki mesin-mesin para tetangganya. Banyak orang yang kagum akan bakat Henry itu, tetapi ayahnya membenci pekerjaan itu. William Ford menginginkan anaknya menjadi seorang petani yang baik. Tetapi hal tersebut tidak dapat dicegahnya sehubungan Henry mempunyai kemauan yang besar dalam bidang ini.Setelah meningkat dewasa, dan merasa mampu untuk hidup mandiri. Henry meminta restu kepada orang tuanya untuk mencoba hidup merantau. Ia berjalan menuju kota Detroit. Di kota ini ia mendapatkan pekerjaan pada sebuah pabrik. Ia mendapat gaji 2,50 dolar seminggu. Tapi ia harus mengeluarkan biaya 3,50 dolar untuk biaya hidup dalam waktu yang sama. Maka untuk menutupi kekurangan, itu ia menambah pekerjaan ekstra sebagai pelayan pada sebuah toko permata. Dari toko ini ia menerima 2,00 dolar. Sembilan bulan lamanya ia bekerja di pabrik itu, sementara menjadi pelayan pada toko permata ketika pulang dari bekerja di pabrik.Suatu hari, tiba-tiba ia mendapat kabar perihal ayahnya yang sakit keras. Ayahnya meminta Henry agar lekas pulang. Henry tidak dapat berbuat apa-apa kecuali memenuhi permintaan ayahnya itu. Dia harus kembali ke ladang!Selama bekerja sebagai petani, Henry mempunyai ide untuk membuat sejenis mesin yang dapat bekerja sebagai bajak di ladang-ladang. Ia tidak menyetujui binatang-binatang dipekerjakan di ladang-ladang dan kebun. Mereka menjadi banyak makan. Selama musim dingin mereka tidak bekerja, tetapi makan terus. Henry menciptakan sebuah mesin yang dapat bekerja di ladang-ladang untuk menggantikan hewan tanpa harus terus-menerus memberinya makan. Hasil temuannya itu merupakan sumbangan yang amat berarti bagi penciptaan mesin-mesin pertanian kelak. Banyak orang yang tertarik kepada idenya. Di samping itu ia banyak pula membantu para tetangganya telah sedikit demi sedikit memakai mesin di ladang-ladang mereka. Henry adalah orang-orang begitu cakap dalam bidang permesinan ini, sehingga ia dikenal sebagai ahli mesin satu-satunya di daerah itu, ini berlangsung selama beberapa tahun.Karena tidak dapat meninggalkan tanah pertanian selama ayahnya sakit. Maka ia banyak memperhatikan masalah dan kekurangan-kekurangan yang diderita oleh para petani. Ia menyimpulkan bahwa para petani tidak perlu mengeluarkan biaya yang banyak yang 24 hari dalam setahun bekerja memproduksi bahan makanan. Henry berkata kepada para tetangganya, “Bila waktunya membajak, mengolah tanah dan menuai lebih baik, para petani harus menggunakan mesin-mesin atau mekanisasi. Disamping pekerjaan lebih cepat selesai, dapat pula memberikan upah yang layak. Ladang yang diolah dengan cara mekanisasi dapat dan akan menekan biaya operasionalnya, selain pekerjaan dapat diselesaikan dengan tepat, para petani dapat pula menikmati hasil ladangnya dengan pendapatan yang pantas.”Henry Ford menciptakan mesin pertaniannya yang pertama ketika ia berumur 20 tahun. Percobaan yang pertama dari mesin yang kelihatan aneh. Ini hanya mampu bergerak 40 kaki kemudian tiba-tiba berhenti. “Saya mengharapkan mesin ini mampu membajak seluruh ladang-ladang dalam waktu yang singkat,” kata Henry, “Tapi penemuan ini belum mempunyai kekuatan yang berarti”. Traktor yang pertama ini masih menunggu penemuan lain di negara itu, yakni penggunaan bahan bakar.Sementara itu Henry Ford menyenangi seorang gadis manis di sebuah kota lain. Tetapi gadis manis tersebut tidak menyukainya. Henry memikirkan cara memecahkan problem itu. Ia membeli satu set permainan sulap dan meminjam seekor kuda manis kepunyaan bapaknya. Kemudian ia membuat sebuah jubah dari kain satin. Selanjutnya mendirikan sebuah grup sulap di dekat rumah Clara Bryant, anak gadis yang memikat hatinya itu. Dengan mengerjakan sebuah baju rompi yang manis, dan banyak sakunya, juga sebuah jam yang dibuatnya sendiri dan dua buah sapu tangan, Henry menunjukkan kebolehannya dalam bermain sulap. Henry mengadakan dua kali pertunjukan yang selalu menarik di kala itu. Hal tersebut sekaligus mencapai yang diinginkannya, menaklukkan hati Clara Bryant yang semula tidak suka kepadanya.“Ibu”, kata Clara Bryant kepada ibunya suatu pagi, “Saya kira laki-laki yang bernama Ford yang mengadakan pertunjukan bersama kawannya di samping rumah itu, saya yakin dia akan dapat terkenal di dunia.”Henry tidak menyia-nyiakan kesempatan itu. Beberapa minggu kemudian ia menghampiri ayahnya dan berkata, “Ayah, sekiranya saya memutuskan untuk kawin, apa yang akan ayah berikan kepada saya?” William Ford berpikir sejenak lalu katanya, “Engkau akan mendapatkan delapan puluh acre (1 acre sama dengan 4072 m2 ) tanah, semua pekayuan yang engkau inginkan dapat engkau potong sendiri untuk sebuah rumah.“Baiklah”, sorak Henry. Kemudian dia mulai menebangi pepohonan di tanah yang di berikan oleh ayahnya itu. Sebagian untuk dipersiapkan untuk mendirikan sebuah rumah untuk keluarga kelak. Akhirnya apa yang ia inginkan untuk menikahi Clara tercapai. Henry dan Clara menikah pada bulan Apil 1888. Mereka hidup dengan menggarap ladang selama tiga tahun di pemberian ayahnya. Pada suatu malam Henry berkata kepada istrinya, “Clara, saya yakin kita akan lebih sukses, bila kita bisa pindah ke Detroit. Saya akan membuat sebuah kereta kuda di sana. Di sini saya terlalu sibuk!” Henry kemudian menerangkan kepada istrinya tentang gagasan-gagasannya untuk membuat kendaraan yang digerakkan dengan mesin.Di Detroit ia mendapatkan pekerjaan di perusahaan lampu “Edison” pada malam hari, sedangkan pada siang hari ia membuat kereta kudanya untuk berlari. Selama dua tahun ia belum dapat menciptakan kereta kudanya untuk berlari. Ia telah banyak menghabiskan waktu di bengkelnya yang terbuat dari batu bata sederhana itu, sementara di sekeliling para tetangganya melihat tingkahnya, menganggap Henry telah gila.“Sebuah kereta kuda!?” kata mereka, “Bila akan bergerak kalau Henry tidak mendorongnya”. Tapi Henry Ford tetap pada pendiriannya. Henry tidak berhenti bekerja di bengkelnya. Ia menumpahkan segala perhatiannya dengan penuh konsentrasi terhadap idenya. “Barang apa yang dikerjakan si dungu itu?” kata orang-orang yang melihat kelakuan Henry itu. Kemudian mereka menyiramnya dengan air. Henry Ford tidak dapat berbuat apa-apa, ia dalam keadaan miskin sekali.Pada suatu pagi tahun 1893 sebuah kereta kuda, siap untuk diuji coba. Dengan kegigihan yang kuat dan cekatan yang membaja Henry Ford memulai mengoperasikan keretanya, yang sangat membisingkan dan mengeluarkan asap yang mengepul-ngepul di udara. Kereta itu meluncur dari pabriknya menuju jalan raya. Tapi tidak jauh berlari. Baru beberapa kaki saja beranjak dari bengkel tiba-tiba mati, dan tak dapat berkelok karena tidak mempunyai kemudi. Akan tetapi mesin kereta itu kembali hidup dengan demikian kini Henry telah membuktikan kepada orang-orang di sekelilingnya yang selama ini menganggap lucu, dungu, dan tolol, sekarang tidaklah demikian halnya.Malam itu, Henry si perancang kereta itu merasa sangat puas dan bahagia dengan hasil temuannya. Karya tersebut dirayakannya dengan segelas susu panas, kemudian membantingkan bajunya yang basah oleh keringat itu ke samping perapian, lantas meloncat ke tempat tidur. Untuk menikmati mimpi yang indah yang untuk pertama kalinya setelah meninggalkan tanah pertaniannya.Ketika kereta ciptaannya diuji coba untuk kedua kalinya, istrinya ikut ambil bagian, yaitu sebagai penumpang. Kreativitas mereka itu menimbulkan sensasi? Beberapa ekor kuda sekonyong-konyong terkejut, lantas lari sekencang-kencangnya tidak tentu arah, ketika kereta Henry itu lewat di dekatnya. Suara kereka itu menimbulkan pekik yang memekakan telinga, lantara kerasnya. Mendadak kereta itu terhenti karena mesinnya mati.Orang-orang menyaksikan keanehan itu serentak menyerbu, mengelilingi benda yang belum pernah mereka lihat sebelumnya. Serta-merta mereka bersorak, sebagian merasa kagum, tapi sebagian besar menunjukkan rasa cemas. Sejumlah besar dari mereka mengeluhkan suara yang ditimbulkan oleh kereta aneh itu sehingga mengakibatkan kebisingan dan kegaduhan. Karena itu sangat kotor dan kelihatan dan kelihatan membahayakan. Mereka berkata bahwa hal tersebut pasti akan menimbulkan bencana, sehubungan dengan ia tidak dapat dikendalikan. Ia hanya bisa lari lurus memanjat bukit dan meloncati tebing-tebing. Mereka menasihati Henry Ford agar pekerjaan itu diberhentikan saja. Tapi sang “penemu” itu menjawab, “Kereta ini harus lari, dan lari”, tapi itu harus diperbaiki, kata mereka. Ford menjawab spontan “Saya sekarang belum mempunyai dana dan tidak mempunyai koneksi yang dapat membantu saya. Yang saya pikirkan sekarang adalah bagaimana dapat menciptakan sebuah “otomobil”. Bertahun-tahun lamanya Henry memikirkan, bagaimana ia dapat menyempurnakan hasil karyanya itu. Demikianlah sampai ia mampu menunjukkan kepada dunia bahwa ia telah memperbaiki modal yang besar dan kuat, hasil dari gagasan-gagasannya yang semula dianggap gila itu.Ketika Henry Ford meninggal dunia pada tahun 1947, ia mencapai usia 83 tahun. Sedikit sekali orang yang dapat memahaminya, tetapi berjuta-juta orang tahu bahwa kereta kudanya telah mengelilingi dunia.
sumber : http://leadership-politic.blogspot.com/
sumber : http://leadership-politic.blogspot.com/
BATMAN BEGIN
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the film. For the video game, see Batman Begins (video game).
Batman Begins
Directed by
Christopher Nolan
Produced by
Emma ThomasLarry J. FrancoCharles Roven
Written by
Screenplay:Christopher NolanDavid S. GoyerStory:David S. GoyerComic Book:Bob KaneBill Finger
Starring
Christian BaleMichael CaineLiam NeesonKatie HolmesGary OldmanCillian MurphyMorgan FreemanTom WilkinsonRutger HauerKen Watanabe
Music by
Hans ZimmerJames Newton Howard
Cinematography
Wally Pfister
Editing by
Lee Smith
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date(s)
June 15, 2005
Running time
140 min.
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$135 million
Gross revenue
Domestic:$205,343,774Worldwide:$371,853,783
Followed by
The Dark Knight
Official website
Allmovie profile
IMDb profile
Batman Begins is a 2005 American superhero film based on the fictional DC Comics character Batman, directed by Christopher Nolan. It stars Christian Bale as Batman, along with Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Liam Neeson, Katie Holmes, Cillian Murphy, Morgan Freeman, Ken Watanabe, Tom Wilkinson, and Rutger Hauer. The film reboots the Batman film series, telling the origin story of the character and begins with Bruce Wayne's initial fear of bats, the death of his parents, and his journey to becoming Batman. It draws inspiration from classic comic book storylines such as Batman: The Man Who Falls, Batman: Year One, and Batman: The Long Halloween.
After a series of unsuccessful projects to resurrect Batman on screen following the 1997 critical and commercial failure of Batman & Robin, Nolan and David S. Goyer began work on the film in early 2003 and aimed for a darker and more realistic tone, with humanity and realism being the basis of the film. The goal was to get the audience to care for both Batman and Bruce. The film, which was primarily shot in England and Chicago, relied on traditional stunts and miniatures — computer-generated imagery was used minimally. A new Batmobile (called the Tumbler) and a more mobile Batsuit were both created specifically for the film.
Batman Begins was critically and commercially successful. The film opened on June 15, 2005 in the United States and Canada in 3,858 theaters. It grossed US$48 million in its opening weekend, eventually grossing $370 million worldwide. The film received an 84% overall approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes. Critics noted that fear was a common theme throughout the film, and remarked that it had a darker tone compared to previous Batman films. A sequel titled The Dark Knight was released in July 2008 and also saw the return of both Nolan and Bale to the franchise. The film has also popularized the notion of reboots in Hollywood.
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the film. For the video game, see Batman Begins (video game).
Batman Begins
Directed by
Christopher Nolan
Produced by
Emma ThomasLarry J. FrancoCharles Roven
Written by
Screenplay:Christopher NolanDavid S. GoyerStory:David S. GoyerComic Book:Bob KaneBill Finger
Starring
Christian BaleMichael CaineLiam NeesonKatie HolmesGary OldmanCillian MurphyMorgan FreemanTom WilkinsonRutger HauerKen Watanabe
Music by
Hans ZimmerJames Newton Howard
Cinematography
Wally Pfister
Editing by
Lee Smith
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date(s)
June 15, 2005
Running time
140 min.
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$135 million
Gross revenue
Domestic:$205,343,774Worldwide:$371,853,783
Followed by
The Dark Knight
Official website
Allmovie profile
IMDb profile
Batman Begins is a 2005 American superhero film based on the fictional DC Comics character Batman, directed by Christopher Nolan. It stars Christian Bale as Batman, along with Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Liam Neeson, Katie Holmes, Cillian Murphy, Morgan Freeman, Ken Watanabe, Tom Wilkinson, and Rutger Hauer. The film reboots the Batman film series, telling the origin story of the character and begins with Bruce Wayne's initial fear of bats, the death of his parents, and his journey to becoming Batman. It draws inspiration from classic comic book storylines such as Batman: The Man Who Falls, Batman: Year One, and Batman: The Long Halloween.
After a series of unsuccessful projects to resurrect Batman on screen following the 1997 critical and commercial failure of Batman & Robin, Nolan and David S. Goyer began work on the film in early 2003 and aimed for a darker and more realistic tone, with humanity and realism being the basis of the film. The goal was to get the audience to care for both Batman and Bruce. The film, which was primarily shot in England and Chicago, relied on traditional stunts and miniatures — computer-generated imagery was used minimally. A new Batmobile (called the Tumbler) and a more mobile Batsuit were both created specifically for the film.
Batman Begins was critically and commercially successful. The film opened on June 15, 2005 in the United States and Canada in 3,858 theaters. It grossed US$48 million in its opening weekend, eventually grossing $370 million worldwide. The film received an 84% overall approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes. Critics noted that fear was a common theme throughout the film, and remarked that it had a darker tone compared to previous Batman films. A sequel titled The Dark Knight was released in July 2008 and also saw the return of both Nolan and Bale to the franchise. The film has also popularized the notion of reboots in Hollywood.
OLD MAN AND THE BEGINNING OF THE WORLD
Old Man came from the South, making the mountains, prairies, and forests as he passed along. He made the birds and animals also. He traveled northward, making things as he went along, putting red paint in the ground here and there, making it all as we see it today.
He made the Milk River and then crossed it. As he was tired, he went up onto a little hill and he laid down to rest. As he lay on his back, stretched out on the grass with his arms extended, he marked his figure with stones. You can still see those stones now, showing you where his body laid.
Going on north when he was through he tripped over a knoll and fell down hard on his knees. He said, "You are a bad thing to make me stumble so!" Then he raised up two large buttes there and named them the Knees. They are still called the Knees to this day. He went on farther north, and with some rocks that he had he built the Sweet Grass Hills.
Old Man covered the plains with grass for the animals to feed upon. He marked off a piece of ground and in it make all kinds of roots and berries to grow - camas, carrots, turnips, bitterroot, serviceberries, bullberries, cherries, plums, and rosebuds. He planted trees, and put all kinds of animals on the ground.
When he made the bighorn sheep with its large, heavy horns, he had put it out on the prairie. But it didn't travel very easy on the prairie; it didn't go very fast, and it moved awkwardly. So Old Man took it by its horns and led it up to the mountains, and turned it loose. There the bighorn skipped about among the rocks and went up fearful places with no trouble whatsoever. So Old Man said to it, "This is where you are meant to be; this is what you're fitted for, the rocks and the mountains."
While he was in the mountains, he made the antelope out of dirt and turned it loose, to see how it would go. It ran so fast that it fell over some rocks and hurt itself. Seeing that the mountains weren't the place for it, Old Man took the antelope down to the prairie and turned it loose. He watched it for a moment, and then said, "So this is what you are suited for, the broad prairie," as he watched it running at full stride across the prairie.
One day Old Man decided that he would make a woman and a child. So he formed them both of clay, the woman and the child, who was her son. After he had made the clay into human shapes, he said to it, "You must be people." And then he covered it up and went away. The next morning he went to the place, and took off all of the covering, but the clay had changed little. The second morning he saw a little change, and the third, a lot more. The fourth morning he went to the place, took off the covering, looked at the clay people, and said, "Get up and walk." They did so. They walked down to the river with their maker, and then he told them that his name was Napi, Old Man. And that is how we came to be people. It was he who made us.
The first people were poor and naked, and they didn't know how to do anything for themselves. Old Man showed them the roots and berries and said that "you can eat these". He pointed to certain trees. "When the bark of these trees is young and tender, it's good. Then you can peel it off and eat it."
He told the people that animals should also be their food. "These are your herds," he said. "All the little animals that are on the ground; squirrels, rabbits, beavers, skunk - are all good to eat. You do not need to fear to eat their flesh. The birds that fly, too; these I made for you so that you can eat of their flesh."
Old Man took the first people over the prairie and through the forests and the swamps, to show them the different plants he had made. He told them what herbs were good for sicknesses, saying often, "The root of this herb or the leaf of this herb, if gathered in a certain month of the year, is good for a certain sickness." In that way the people learned about the medicines.
He showed them how to make weapons with which to kill the animals for their food. First he went out and cut some serviceberry shoots, brought them in, and peeled the bark off of them. He took one of the larger ones, flattened it, tied a string to it, and thus made a bow. Then he caught one of the birds he had made, took feathers from its wing, split them, and tied them to a shaft of wood.
At first he tied four feathers to the wood, and then shot the arrow. But he found that it didn't fly well unless he used three feathers, and when he did, it hit the mark. Then he went out and broke sharp pieces off of some of the stones around him. When he tied them on to the shaft, he found that the black flint stones, and some white flint stones, made the best arrow tips.
When the people had learned how to made bows and arrows, Old Man told them how to shoot animals and birds. Because it isn't healthy to eat animal flesh raw, he showed the first people how to make a fire. He gathered a soft, dry, rotten driftwood and made a punk of it. He then found a piece of hard wood and drilled a hole in it with an arrow point. He gave the first man a pointed piece of hard wood and showed him how to roll it between his hands until sparks came out and the punk caught fire. Then he showed the people how to cook meat, so that they didn't get sick from the raw meat.
He told them to get a certain kind of rock that was on the land, while he found a harder stone. With the harder stone he had them hollow out the softer stone and to make a bowl with it. Thus they made their dishes.
Old Man told the first people how to get spirit power; "Go away by yourself and go to sleep. Something will come to you in your dream and will help you. It may be some animal. Whatever the animal tells you to do in your sleep, do it. Obey it. Be guided by it. If later you want help, if you are traveling alone or you cry for help, your prayer will be answered. It may be by an eagle, or a bear, or buffalo. Whatever animal hears your prayer, you must listen to it.
That was how the first people got along in the world; by the power that was given to them in their dreams.
After this, Old Man went back to traveling north. Many of the animals that he had created followed him. They understood when he spoke to them, and were his servants. When he got to the north point of the Porcupine Mountains, he made some more mud images, blew upon them, and they became people, men and women. They asked him, "What are we to eat?"
By way of answer, Old Man made many images of clay in the form of buffaloes. He blew his breath upon them and they stood up. When he made some signs to him, they started to run. Then he said to the people, "These animals; these buffalo, they are your food."
"But how can we kill them?" the people asked. "I will show you," he replied.
He took them behind a cliff and told them to build rock piles. "Now hide behind those rock piles," he said. "I will lead the buffalo this way. Now, when they get opposite of you, rise up."
After telling them what to do, he went toward the herd of the buffalo. When he called to them, they started to run towards him, and they followed him until they were inside the piles of rock. Then Old Man dropped back. As the people rose up, the buffalo ran in a straight line and jumped right out off of the cliff.
"Go down and take the flesh of those animals," Old Man cried.
The people tried to tear the limbs apart, but they could not. Old Man went to the side of the cliff, broke off some pieces with sharp edges, and told the people to cut the flesh with these rocks. They obeyed him. When they'd finished skinning the buffalo, they set up some poles and put the hides on them. Thus they made a shelter to sleep under.
After Old Man had taught the people all of these things, he started off again, traveling north until he came to where the Bow and the Elbow rivers meet. There he made more people and taught them the same things. From there he went further north. When he'd gotten almost all the way to the Red Deer River, he was so tired that he lay down on top of a hill. The form of his body can be seen there yet, on the top of the hill where he'd lain.
When he awoke from his sleep, he traveled farther north until he came to a high hill. He climbed up to the top and there sat down to rest. As he gazed over the country, he was very satisfied with it. Looking at the steep hill below him, he said to himself, "This is a fine place for sliding. I will have some fun!" And he began to slide down the hill. The marks where he slid are still there, and the place is known to all the Blackfeet as "Old Man's Sliding Ground".
Old Man cannot die. Long ago he left the Blackfeet and went away toward the west, going up into the mountains. Before he went, he said to the people, "I will always take care of you, and some day, I will come back." Even today some people think that he spoke the truth, and that when he does come back, he will bring with him the buffalo, who many believe that the white men have hidden. Still others think that before he left he said that when he returned, he'd find them a different people. They would be living in a different world, he said, from that that he had made for them and had taught them to live in.
He made the Milk River and then crossed it. As he was tired, he went up onto a little hill and he laid down to rest. As he lay on his back, stretched out on the grass with his arms extended, he marked his figure with stones. You can still see those stones now, showing you where his body laid.
Going on north when he was through he tripped over a knoll and fell down hard on his knees. He said, "You are a bad thing to make me stumble so!" Then he raised up two large buttes there and named them the Knees. They are still called the Knees to this day. He went on farther north, and with some rocks that he had he built the Sweet Grass Hills.
Old Man covered the plains with grass for the animals to feed upon. He marked off a piece of ground and in it make all kinds of roots and berries to grow - camas, carrots, turnips, bitterroot, serviceberries, bullberries, cherries, plums, and rosebuds. He planted trees, and put all kinds of animals on the ground.
When he made the bighorn sheep with its large, heavy horns, he had put it out on the prairie. But it didn't travel very easy on the prairie; it didn't go very fast, and it moved awkwardly. So Old Man took it by its horns and led it up to the mountains, and turned it loose. There the bighorn skipped about among the rocks and went up fearful places with no trouble whatsoever. So Old Man said to it, "This is where you are meant to be; this is what you're fitted for, the rocks and the mountains."
While he was in the mountains, he made the antelope out of dirt and turned it loose, to see how it would go. It ran so fast that it fell over some rocks and hurt itself. Seeing that the mountains weren't the place for it, Old Man took the antelope down to the prairie and turned it loose. He watched it for a moment, and then said, "So this is what you are suited for, the broad prairie," as he watched it running at full stride across the prairie.
One day Old Man decided that he would make a woman and a child. So he formed them both of clay, the woman and the child, who was her son. After he had made the clay into human shapes, he said to it, "You must be people." And then he covered it up and went away. The next morning he went to the place, and took off all of the covering, but the clay had changed little. The second morning he saw a little change, and the third, a lot more. The fourth morning he went to the place, took off the covering, looked at the clay people, and said, "Get up and walk." They did so. They walked down to the river with their maker, and then he told them that his name was Napi, Old Man. And that is how we came to be people. It was he who made us.
The first people were poor and naked, and they didn't know how to do anything for themselves. Old Man showed them the roots and berries and said that "you can eat these". He pointed to certain trees. "When the bark of these trees is young and tender, it's good. Then you can peel it off and eat it."
He told the people that animals should also be their food. "These are your herds," he said. "All the little animals that are on the ground; squirrels, rabbits, beavers, skunk - are all good to eat. You do not need to fear to eat their flesh. The birds that fly, too; these I made for you so that you can eat of their flesh."
Old Man took the first people over the prairie and through the forests and the swamps, to show them the different plants he had made. He told them what herbs were good for sicknesses, saying often, "The root of this herb or the leaf of this herb, if gathered in a certain month of the year, is good for a certain sickness." In that way the people learned about the medicines.
He showed them how to make weapons with which to kill the animals for their food. First he went out and cut some serviceberry shoots, brought them in, and peeled the bark off of them. He took one of the larger ones, flattened it, tied a string to it, and thus made a bow. Then he caught one of the birds he had made, took feathers from its wing, split them, and tied them to a shaft of wood.
At first he tied four feathers to the wood, and then shot the arrow. But he found that it didn't fly well unless he used three feathers, and when he did, it hit the mark. Then he went out and broke sharp pieces off of some of the stones around him. When he tied them on to the shaft, he found that the black flint stones, and some white flint stones, made the best arrow tips.
When the people had learned how to made bows and arrows, Old Man told them how to shoot animals and birds. Because it isn't healthy to eat animal flesh raw, he showed the first people how to make a fire. He gathered a soft, dry, rotten driftwood and made a punk of it. He then found a piece of hard wood and drilled a hole in it with an arrow point. He gave the first man a pointed piece of hard wood and showed him how to roll it between his hands until sparks came out and the punk caught fire. Then he showed the people how to cook meat, so that they didn't get sick from the raw meat.
He told them to get a certain kind of rock that was on the land, while he found a harder stone. With the harder stone he had them hollow out the softer stone and to make a bowl with it. Thus they made their dishes.
Old Man told the first people how to get spirit power; "Go away by yourself and go to sleep. Something will come to you in your dream and will help you. It may be some animal. Whatever the animal tells you to do in your sleep, do it. Obey it. Be guided by it. If later you want help, if you are traveling alone or you cry for help, your prayer will be answered. It may be by an eagle, or a bear, or buffalo. Whatever animal hears your prayer, you must listen to it.
That was how the first people got along in the world; by the power that was given to them in their dreams.
After this, Old Man went back to traveling north. Many of the animals that he had created followed him. They understood when he spoke to them, and were his servants. When he got to the north point of the Porcupine Mountains, he made some more mud images, blew upon them, and they became people, men and women. They asked him, "What are we to eat?"
By way of answer, Old Man made many images of clay in the form of buffaloes. He blew his breath upon them and they stood up. When he made some signs to him, they started to run. Then he said to the people, "These animals; these buffalo, they are your food."
"But how can we kill them?" the people asked. "I will show you," he replied.
He took them behind a cliff and told them to build rock piles. "Now hide behind those rock piles," he said. "I will lead the buffalo this way. Now, when they get opposite of you, rise up."
After telling them what to do, he went toward the herd of the buffalo. When he called to them, they started to run towards him, and they followed him until they were inside the piles of rock. Then Old Man dropped back. As the people rose up, the buffalo ran in a straight line and jumped right out off of the cliff.
"Go down and take the flesh of those animals," Old Man cried.
The people tried to tear the limbs apart, but they could not. Old Man went to the side of the cliff, broke off some pieces with sharp edges, and told the people to cut the flesh with these rocks. They obeyed him. When they'd finished skinning the buffalo, they set up some poles and put the hides on them. Thus they made a shelter to sleep under.
After Old Man had taught the people all of these things, he started off again, traveling north until he came to where the Bow and the Elbow rivers meet. There he made more people and taught them the same things. From there he went further north. When he'd gotten almost all the way to the Red Deer River, he was so tired that he lay down on top of a hill. The form of his body can be seen there yet, on the top of the hill where he'd lain.
When he awoke from his sleep, he traveled farther north until he came to a high hill. He climbed up to the top and there sat down to rest. As he gazed over the country, he was very satisfied with it. Looking at the steep hill below him, he said to himself, "This is a fine place for sliding. I will have some fun!" And he began to slide down the hill. The marks where he slid are still there, and the place is known to all the Blackfeet as "Old Man's Sliding Ground".
Old Man cannot die. Long ago he left the Blackfeet and went away toward the west, going up into the mountains. Before he went, he said to the people, "I will always take care of you, and some day, I will come back." Even today some people think that he spoke the truth, and that when he does come back, he will bring with him the buffalo, who many believe that the white men have hidden. Still others think that before he left he said that when he returned, he'd find them a different people. They would be living in a different world, he said, from that that he had made for them and had taught them to live in.
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Memang masih banyak yang harus saya pelajari tentang hosting ,tapi sebagai awal saya rasa ini sudah cukup
Mudah-mudahan dengan hosting di http://www.000webhost.com/, blog saya akan semakin terkenal dan semakin membuat saya lebih memahami semuanya ini.
Terima kasih www.000webhost.com.
SEBAB PERBEDAAN AWAL RAMADHAN
Gurauan di Iran yang terkenal berbunyi: Kalau para malaikat membunyikan terompet mengumumkan Hari Pengadilan Akhir maka kaum syiah akan bertanya kepada kaum Suni: apa alasan pembunyian terompet. Seseorang menjawab Hari Pengadilan Terakhir telah tiba. Dan akan dijawab pula oleh Syiah: kalau begitu bagi kami berarti besok.
Gurauan sarkastis itu hanya merupakan lontaran frustasi umat Muslim karena tidak ada kesepakatan antara golongan politik dan kelompok teologi tentang kesatuan merayakan hari-hari penting umat Islam. Sebagian besar negara Islam memutuskan Senin 1 September sebagai hari pertama bulan suci Ramadan, awal ibadah puasa umat Muslim.
Itu tidak berlaku untuk empat negara. Libya dan Nigeria memulai Ramadan pada hari Minggu 31 Agustus, sedangkan Maroko dan Iran mencanangkan Selasa 2 September sebagai awal puasa. Irak seperti biasa terbagi dua. Bagi kaum Suni puasa dimulai Senin, sedangkan kaum Syiah Selasa.
Kaum Syiah biasa menunda Ramadan serta perayaan Idul Fitri dan Idul Adha, sehari setelah perayaan kaum Suni. Itulah yang membuat pemerintah Irak memutuskan libur sepekan penuh untuk merayakan hari raya kurban Idul Adha, peringatan umat Muslim atas pemberian maaf Tuhan kepada Nabi Ibrahim, yang tahun lalu bertepatan dengan Hari Natal.
Berbagai Alasan
Ada berbagai alasan mengapa orang Muslim berbeda dalam menentukan awal Ramadan. Antara lain perselisihan politik dan sektaris yang sudah bertahun-tahun lamanya berdasarkan alasan teologi. Sebagai contoh di Libya, awal Ramadan dimulai berdasarkan kalender astronomi, berbeda dengan negara-negara Islam lainnya yang bergantung pada munculnya bulan sabit, sebagai awal Ramadan atau awal bulan kesembilan dalam tahun Hijriyah.
Untuk mengatasi perbedaan awal bulan suci, Dewan Teologi Islam, menyerukan kompromi berdasarkan munculnya bulan yang tidak berlawanan, dengan perhitungan kalender astronomi. Dewan juga mengumumkan hanya mengikuti satu metode saja berlawanan dengan hukum Islam Sharia. Hukum Sharia melakukan perhitungan sesuai Al Quran, yaitu bulan muncul sesuai dengan hadis al Quran.
Perhitungan Astronomi
Bagi para rohaniwan Syiah, bulan suci Ramadan dimulai begitu terlihat bulan sabit. Itu menandai awal bulan dan puasa berawal sehari setelah kaum Suni. Dalam beberapa tahun belakangan, banyak seruan mendirikan Dewan Islam yang mewakili seluruh bangsa Islam. Salah satu tugasnya adalah mencapai kesepakatan tentang awal bulan suci Ramadan.
Konflik tentang perbedaan sektarian yang sebenarnya terjadi di kalangan aliran Islam seperti Wahhabisme, aliran konservatif Islam Suni yang mendominasi Arab Saudi. Banyak pengamat beranggapan, penolakan mati-matian bagi penghitungan astronomi dan bertahan pada pandangan mata telanjang bagi munculnya bulan, bukanlah semata-mata perbedaan teologi. Ini juga lontaran anti modernisasi atau setidaknya upaya melindungi agar modernisasi tidak menggantikan tradisi Islam kuno.
Debat itu mengakibatkan salah seorang insinyur Tunisia yang bekerja di badan Antariksa nasional Amerika NASA untuk menemukan teropong elektronis yang ditempelkan pada kamera sehingga setiap orang dapat melihat dengan jelas munculnya bulan sabit.
Politik
Perbedaan teologis dan sektarian bukan satu-satunya alasan di balik perselisihan tentang awal ramadan. Politik juga berperan penting. Pada tahun 1970an, negara-negara Arab radikal seperti Irak, Suriah, Libya dan Yaman memilih waktu yang berbeda untuk memulai Ramadan sebagai tanda menentang Arab Saudi yang saat itu mendominasi politik, ekonomi dan keagamaan. Beberapa tahun setelahnya negara-negara itu secara perlahan tidak lagi menentang Arab Saudi.
Sekarang hanya tinggal Libya yang menentang Arab Saudi. Kolonel Muammar Kadhafi sendiri menyerukan internasionalisasi tempat-tempat suci Islam di Arab Saudi. Namun gagasan itu tidak didukung negara-negara Islam mana pun. Sebagian besar negara Islam mendukung Arab Saudi yang menentukan sendiri hari-hari perayaan penting umat Islam.
Gurauan sarkastis itu hanya merupakan lontaran frustasi umat Muslim karena tidak ada kesepakatan antara golongan politik dan kelompok teologi tentang kesatuan merayakan hari-hari penting umat Islam. Sebagian besar negara Islam memutuskan Senin 1 September sebagai hari pertama bulan suci Ramadan, awal ibadah puasa umat Muslim.
Itu tidak berlaku untuk empat negara. Libya dan Nigeria memulai Ramadan pada hari Minggu 31 Agustus, sedangkan Maroko dan Iran mencanangkan Selasa 2 September sebagai awal puasa. Irak seperti biasa terbagi dua. Bagi kaum Suni puasa dimulai Senin, sedangkan kaum Syiah Selasa.
Kaum Syiah biasa menunda Ramadan serta perayaan Idul Fitri dan Idul Adha, sehari setelah perayaan kaum Suni. Itulah yang membuat pemerintah Irak memutuskan libur sepekan penuh untuk merayakan hari raya kurban Idul Adha, peringatan umat Muslim atas pemberian maaf Tuhan kepada Nabi Ibrahim, yang tahun lalu bertepatan dengan Hari Natal.
Berbagai Alasan
Ada berbagai alasan mengapa orang Muslim berbeda dalam menentukan awal Ramadan. Antara lain perselisihan politik dan sektaris yang sudah bertahun-tahun lamanya berdasarkan alasan teologi. Sebagai contoh di Libya, awal Ramadan dimulai berdasarkan kalender astronomi, berbeda dengan negara-negara Islam lainnya yang bergantung pada munculnya bulan sabit, sebagai awal Ramadan atau awal bulan kesembilan dalam tahun Hijriyah.
Untuk mengatasi perbedaan awal bulan suci, Dewan Teologi Islam, menyerukan kompromi berdasarkan munculnya bulan yang tidak berlawanan, dengan perhitungan kalender astronomi. Dewan juga mengumumkan hanya mengikuti satu metode saja berlawanan dengan hukum Islam Sharia. Hukum Sharia melakukan perhitungan sesuai Al Quran, yaitu bulan muncul sesuai dengan hadis al Quran.
Perhitungan Astronomi
Bagi para rohaniwan Syiah, bulan suci Ramadan dimulai begitu terlihat bulan sabit. Itu menandai awal bulan dan puasa berawal sehari setelah kaum Suni. Dalam beberapa tahun belakangan, banyak seruan mendirikan Dewan Islam yang mewakili seluruh bangsa Islam. Salah satu tugasnya adalah mencapai kesepakatan tentang awal bulan suci Ramadan.
Konflik tentang perbedaan sektarian yang sebenarnya terjadi di kalangan aliran Islam seperti Wahhabisme, aliran konservatif Islam Suni yang mendominasi Arab Saudi. Banyak pengamat beranggapan, penolakan mati-matian bagi penghitungan astronomi dan bertahan pada pandangan mata telanjang bagi munculnya bulan, bukanlah semata-mata perbedaan teologi. Ini juga lontaran anti modernisasi atau setidaknya upaya melindungi agar modernisasi tidak menggantikan tradisi Islam kuno.
Debat itu mengakibatkan salah seorang insinyur Tunisia yang bekerja di badan Antariksa nasional Amerika NASA untuk menemukan teropong elektronis yang ditempelkan pada kamera sehingga setiap orang dapat melihat dengan jelas munculnya bulan sabit.
Politik
Perbedaan teologis dan sektarian bukan satu-satunya alasan di balik perselisihan tentang awal ramadan. Politik juga berperan penting. Pada tahun 1970an, negara-negara Arab radikal seperti Irak, Suriah, Libya dan Yaman memilih waktu yang berbeda untuk memulai Ramadan sebagai tanda menentang Arab Saudi yang saat itu mendominasi politik, ekonomi dan keagamaan. Beberapa tahun setelahnya negara-negara itu secara perlahan tidak lagi menentang Arab Saudi.
Sekarang hanya tinggal Libya yang menentang Arab Saudi. Kolonel Muammar Kadhafi sendiri menyerukan internasionalisasi tempat-tempat suci Islam di Arab Saudi. Namun gagasan itu tidak didukung negara-negara Islam mana pun. Sebagian besar negara Islam mendukung Arab Saudi yang menentukan sendiri hari-hari perayaan penting umat Islam.
Rabu, 27 Agustus 2008
RAMADHAN 2008
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim calendar. It is during this month that Muslims observe the Fast of Ramadan. Dates for Ramadan 2008 (or 1429) are 01 - 30 September.
Coinciding with Ramadan, we produce a booklet for the Christian world called, “30-Days Muslim Prayer Guide” (which can be ordered here ).
The first evening of Ramadan
In many places around the world Muslims will be looking to the heavens this evening. They will be interested in knowing if they will be able to see the crescent moon. If it is visible this will be the signal for the beginning of the month of Ramadan. (In most countries religious authorities will make a proclamation concerning the beginning of Ramadan). No fasting will take place till tomorrow morning. Muslims will rise early to eat their breakfast before the day begins. Afterwards they will not have anything else to eat or drink till nightfall. This will be their daily experience during the next 30 days.
Fasting - Ramadan
Fasting is one of the Five Pillars of the religion of Islam and one of the highest forms of Islamic worship. Abstinence from earthly pleasures and curbing evil intentions and desires is regarded as an act of obedience and submission to God as well as an atonement for sins, errors, and mistakes. Called Ramadan (or Ramazan), Muslims fast during this holy month from the moment when it first starts to get light until sunset. Muslims fast as an act of faith and worship towards Allah, seeking to suppress their desires and increase their spiritual piety. Fasting together as a worldwide community - Ummah - affirms the brotherhood and equality of man before Allah.
Islamic Calendar
The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle. The month of Ramadan is the ninth month and begins with a combination of the sighting of the new moon and astronomical calculations. The exact time of Ramadan sometimes varies from place to place as some rely heavily on the moon sightings while others depend on science. An Imam (Muslim holy man) will declare the exact time of Ramadan just prior to its commencement. The fasting period ends upon the sighting of the next new moon, which occurs after 29 or 30 days.
The lunar cycle changes each year. For example, this year Ramadan will be 01-30 September, but last year the dates for Ramadan were 13 September thru 12 October. (See our Islamic Calendar article for details .)
The Meaning of Ramadan
The name Ramadan is derived from the Arabic word ramida or ar-ramad, denoting intense scorching heat and dryness, especially the ground. From the same word there is ramdaa, meaning ’sunbaked sand’ and the famous proverb Kal Mustajeer minar ramadaa binnar - to jump out of the frying pan into the fire. Some say it is so called because Ramadan scorches out the sins with good deeds, as the sun burns the ground.
The Special Feeling of Ramadan
Ramadan brings out a special feeling of emotional excitement and religious zeal among Muslims of all ages. Though fasting is mandatory only for adults, children as young as eight willingly observe fasting with their elders. Children look forward to the excitement of sighting the moon and eating special meals with their families. Adults appreciate the opportunity to double their rewards from God and seek forgiveness for past sins. As Ramadan emphasizes Muslim brotherhood and community all feel a particular closeness.
Muslims have to change their whole physical and emotional selves during this 30 long days of fasting. A typical day of fasting begins with getting up early, around 4:30a.m. and sharing a meal called Sahur together before the fast begins at dawn, about 5:10a.m. As dawn breaks, the first of five daily prayers, Fajr, is offered.
As the day proceeds, fasting Muslims are constantly bombarded with messages from their stomachs that it is time for breakfast, snack, lunch, and so on. And each time, Muslims remind themselves that they are fasting for the sole purpose of pleasing Allah and seeking his mercy. They offer the second and third prayers during early and late afternoon, respectively.
Fasting helps one to experience how a hungry person feels and what it is like to have an empty stomach. It teaches one to share the sufferings of the less fortunate. Muslims believe that fasting leads one to appreciate the bounties of Allah, which are usually taken for granted - until they are missed!
Throughout the day Muslims are encouraged to go out of their way to help the needy, both financially and emotionally. Some believe that a reward earned during this month is multiplied 70 times and more. For this reason, Ramadan is also known as the month of charity and generosity.
To a Muslim, fasting not only means abstaining from food, but also refraining from all vice and evils committed consciously or unconsciously. It is believed that if one volunteers to refrain from lawful foods and sex, they will be in a better position to avoid unlawful things and acts during the rest of the year.
Breaking The Daily Fast During Ramadan
The fast is broken at sunset. The Prophet Muhammad recommended breaking the fast with dates. Muslims are urged to invite others to break the fast with them. These gatherings are called Iftar parties.
Just after breaking the fast, and before dinner, Muslims offer the fourth of the five daily prayers, which is called the Maghrib prayer. After dinner, Muslims go to their houses of worship, called Mosques, to offer the Isha prayer, which is the last of the five daily prayers. The day ends with a special voluntary prayer, the Taraweeh, offered by the congregation reciting the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam.
The Last 10 Days of Ramadan
The last ten days of Ramadan are considered highly blessed, especially the 27th night which is also called the ‘Night of Power’, or the ‘Night of Destiny’. It is believed that on this night the prophet Muhammad received the first revelation of the Qur’an. For many Muslims, this period is marked by a heightened spiritual intensity and they may spend these nights praying and reciting the Qur’an.
After 30 days of fasting, the end of the month of Ramadan is observed with a day of celebration, called Eid-ul-Fitr. On this day, Muslims gather in one place to offer a prayer of thanks. It is traditional to wear new clothes, visit friends and relatives, exchange gifts, eat delicious dishes prepared for this occasion, and wait patiently for the next year.
What the Bible Says About Fasting
In the Bible, we do not find any one method of fasting required of us, but the Lord Jesus did say however, “when you fast…” (Matthew 6:16), seeming to assume that His followers would imitate His own example. We fast as an outward symbol of our devotion to God, being willing to deny ourselves food for His sake. Fasting adds intensity to our prayer, and often leads to breakthroughs. We do not fast to convince or persuade Him, but rather to identify with His broken heart and with His desire for all mankind to know Him. “Is this not the fast that I have chosen: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, to let the oppressed go free and that you break every yoke. Is it not to share your bread with the hungry, and that you bring to your house the poor who are cast out.” (Isaiah 58:6 &7)
by: http://www.30-days.net
Coinciding with Ramadan, we produce a booklet for the Christian world called, “30-Days Muslim Prayer Guide” (which can be ordered here ).
The first evening of Ramadan
In many places around the world Muslims will be looking to the heavens this evening. They will be interested in knowing if they will be able to see the crescent moon. If it is visible this will be the signal for the beginning of the month of Ramadan. (In most countries religious authorities will make a proclamation concerning the beginning of Ramadan). No fasting will take place till tomorrow morning. Muslims will rise early to eat their breakfast before the day begins. Afterwards they will not have anything else to eat or drink till nightfall. This will be their daily experience during the next 30 days.
Fasting - Ramadan
Fasting is one of the Five Pillars of the religion of Islam and one of the highest forms of Islamic worship. Abstinence from earthly pleasures and curbing evil intentions and desires is regarded as an act of obedience and submission to God as well as an atonement for sins, errors, and mistakes. Called Ramadan (or Ramazan), Muslims fast during this holy month from the moment when it first starts to get light until sunset. Muslims fast as an act of faith and worship towards Allah, seeking to suppress their desires and increase their spiritual piety. Fasting together as a worldwide community - Ummah - affirms the brotherhood and equality of man before Allah.
Islamic Calendar
The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle. The month of Ramadan is the ninth month and begins with a combination of the sighting of the new moon and astronomical calculations. The exact time of Ramadan sometimes varies from place to place as some rely heavily on the moon sightings while others depend on science. An Imam (Muslim holy man) will declare the exact time of Ramadan just prior to its commencement. The fasting period ends upon the sighting of the next new moon, which occurs after 29 or 30 days.
The lunar cycle changes each year. For example, this year Ramadan will be 01-30 September, but last year the dates for Ramadan were 13 September thru 12 October. (See our Islamic Calendar article for details .)
The Meaning of Ramadan
The name Ramadan is derived from the Arabic word ramida or ar-ramad, denoting intense scorching heat and dryness, especially the ground. From the same word there is ramdaa, meaning ’sunbaked sand’ and the famous proverb Kal Mustajeer minar ramadaa binnar - to jump out of the frying pan into the fire. Some say it is so called because Ramadan scorches out the sins with good deeds, as the sun burns the ground.
The Special Feeling of Ramadan
Ramadan brings out a special feeling of emotional excitement and religious zeal among Muslims of all ages. Though fasting is mandatory only for adults, children as young as eight willingly observe fasting with their elders. Children look forward to the excitement of sighting the moon and eating special meals with their families. Adults appreciate the opportunity to double their rewards from God and seek forgiveness for past sins. As Ramadan emphasizes Muslim brotherhood and community all feel a particular closeness.
Muslims have to change their whole physical and emotional selves during this 30 long days of fasting. A typical day of fasting begins with getting up early, around 4:30a.m. and sharing a meal called Sahur together before the fast begins at dawn, about 5:10a.m. As dawn breaks, the first of five daily prayers, Fajr, is offered.
As the day proceeds, fasting Muslims are constantly bombarded with messages from their stomachs that it is time for breakfast, snack, lunch, and so on. And each time, Muslims remind themselves that they are fasting for the sole purpose of pleasing Allah and seeking his mercy. They offer the second and third prayers during early and late afternoon, respectively.
Fasting helps one to experience how a hungry person feels and what it is like to have an empty stomach. It teaches one to share the sufferings of the less fortunate. Muslims believe that fasting leads one to appreciate the bounties of Allah, which are usually taken for granted - until they are missed!
Throughout the day Muslims are encouraged to go out of their way to help the needy, both financially and emotionally. Some believe that a reward earned during this month is multiplied 70 times and more. For this reason, Ramadan is also known as the month of charity and generosity.
To a Muslim, fasting not only means abstaining from food, but also refraining from all vice and evils committed consciously or unconsciously. It is believed that if one volunteers to refrain from lawful foods and sex, they will be in a better position to avoid unlawful things and acts during the rest of the year.
Breaking The Daily Fast During Ramadan
The fast is broken at sunset. The Prophet Muhammad recommended breaking the fast with dates. Muslims are urged to invite others to break the fast with them. These gatherings are called Iftar parties.
Just after breaking the fast, and before dinner, Muslims offer the fourth of the five daily prayers, which is called the Maghrib prayer. After dinner, Muslims go to their houses of worship, called Mosques, to offer the Isha prayer, which is the last of the five daily prayers. The day ends with a special voluntary prayer, the Taraweeh, offered by the congregation reciting the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam.
The Last 10 Days of Ramadan
The last ten days of Ramadan are considered highly blessed, especially the 27th night which is also called the ‘Night of Power’, or the ‘Night of Destiny’. It is believed that on this night the prophet Muhammad received the first revelation of the Qur’an. For many Muslims, this period is marked by a heightened spiritual intensity and they may spend these nights praying and reciting the Qur’an.
After 30 days of fasting, the end of the month of Ramadan is observed with a day of celebration, called Eid-ul-Fitr. On this day, Muslims gather in one place to offer a prayer of thanks. It is traditional to wear new clothes, visit friends and relatives, exchange gifts, eat delicious dishes prepared for this occasion, and wait patiently for the next year.
What the Bible Says About Fasting
In the Bible, we do not find any one method of fasting required of us, but the Lord Jesus did say however, “when you fast…” (Matthew 6:16), seeming to assume that His followers would imitate His own example. We fast as an outward symbol of our devotion to God, being willing to deny ourselves food for His sake. Fasting adds intensity to our prayer, and often leads to breakthroughs. We do not fast to convince or persuade Him, but rather to identify with His broken heart and with His desire for all mankind to know Him. “Is this not the fast that I have chosen: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, to let the oppressed go free and that you break every yoke. Is it not to share your bread with the hungry, and that you bring to your house the poor who are cast out.” (Isaiah 58:6 &7)
by: http://www.30-days.net
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